LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


TIMBUCTOO 

THE     MYSTERIOUS 


TIMBUCTOO 


THE    MYSTERIOUS 


BY 


FELIX      DUBOI S 

i( 
Translated  from  the  French  by 

DIANA    WHITE 

With  One  hundred  and  fifty-three  Illustrations  from 

Photographs  and  Drawings  made  on  the  spot 

and  Eleven  Maps  and  Plans 


NEW     YORK 
LONGMANS,  GREEN,  AND  CO. 

1896 


s  Fi/ffl 


All  rights  reserved 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGr 

FROM    PARIS    TO    THE    NIGER,       .  1 

CHAPTER    II 

THE    NIGER,        .  18 

CHAPTER   III 

THE    VALLEY    OF    THE    NIGER,      .  40 

CHAPTER   IV 

THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER,        ,  .  .  56 

CHAPTER   V 

JENNE,  ...  80 

CHAPTER   VI 

THE    SONGHOIS,  89 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN,         .  .  .  .122 


CHAPTER   VIII 

JENNE YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY,  . 


214435 


vi  TIMBUCTOO 

CHAPTER   IX 

PAGE 

FROM  JENNE  TO  TIMBUCTOO,   .  189 

CHAPTER  X 

TIMBUCTOO,,        .  .  208 

CHAPTER  XI 

TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES, 

CHAPTER   XII 

THE    COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF    TIMBUCTOO,  250 

CHAPTER    XIII 

THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKORE,  .  .  .  275 

CHAPTER   XIV 

POLITICS   AND    LITERATURE,          .  ,    .  .  .  297 

CHAPTER   XV 

EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO,  .  .  .  .  321 

CHAPTER 'XVI 

THE  FRENCH  CONQUEST,        ....      352 
INDEX,        .  373 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


1JAGE 


A  Train  in  the  Sudan  :  Native  Passengers,         ....  3 

A  Railway  Station,,          ....  ...  4 

On  the  Road :  Dioulas  Halting,  ...  .10 

On  the  Road  :  Europeans  Travelling,     .  .  .  .  .11 

A  Commissariat  Transport,         .  .  .  .  .  .12 

The  Commissariat :  in  Fort  Bammaku,  .  .  .  .  .13 

Bammaku,  .  .  ..'.'...  .  .  .16 

The  Niger  at  Koulikoro,  ...  17 

A  Fishing-Village  on  the  Banks  of  the  Niger,    .  10 

Scene  on  the  Niger,         .......         20 

My  Yacht,  ........         24 

On  the  Banks  of  the  Niger  :  The  Venus  Anadiomenes,  .  .         25 

The  Military  Salute,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .         26 

Pasture  on  the  Shores  of  the  Niger,        ....  27 

The  Shores  of  Lake  Debo  at  Gourao  :  Gunboat  Station,  .  .         29 

Mount  St.  Charles,  at  the  Entrance  to  Lake  Debo,        .  .  .30 

Mount  St.  Henri,  ......  31 

Oyster-Beds  at  Segu,       .......         32 

Through  the  Sea  of  Grass,  ......         33 

The  Ferry-Boat,  .  .  .  35 

Going  Ashore  in  the  Evening,    .  .  .  .  .  .37 

The  Valley  of  the  Niger's  Source,  .  .  .  .  .43 

The  Tembi  in  the  Sacred  Wood,  .....         46 

A  Waterfall  in  the  Valley  of  the  Niger's  Source,  .  .48 

1  Prepare  to  receive  Cavalry,'       ...  56 

The  Rocky  Barrier  at^Sotouba,  ...  61 

A  Workshop  on  the  Banks  of  the  Niger,  .  (52 

Cotton  in  the  Sudanese  Markets,  .  .  .  .  .64 


viii  TIMBUCTOO 

PAGE 

Weavers  on  the  Banks  of  the  Niger,       .  6G 

see*,      ...  67 

Segu:   The  Ancient  Palace  of  Ahmadou   transformed  into  a   Fort 

(Exterior), 

The  Fort  of  Segu  :  View  of  the  Interior, 

Arrival  of  the  Courier  :  Segu,     .  70 

Postal  Canoe  on  the  Niger,  71 

Bearer  of  an  Urgent  Message,    .  72 

Entrance  to  Mademba's  Palace,  73 

A  Courtyard  in  Mademba's  Palace,  74 

Fama  Mademba,               .             .  75 

Sansanding :  Corner  of  the  Market,        .  77 
'The   Bosos    in    the    bow    abruptly    ceased    plying    their    bamboo 

poles/        .             .  79 
Jenne, 

Boats  on  the  Niger, 

Jenne :  A  Corner  of  the  Town,  .             .  83 

House  in  Jenne,               .....  84 

A  Street  in  Jenne,           ....  85 

House  in  Jenne,              ...  86 

A  Street  in  Jenne,           ....  87 

A  Passenger  on  the  River,          ......  88 

Houses  in  Jenne,             ......  92 

Jenne:  A  Corner  of  the  Town,  .             .....  101 

Jenne :  The  Fishing  Port  .  .  .  .  .  .105 

A  House  in  Jenne,          .             .             .             .             .                          .  108 

View  of  Jenne,    .             .             .             .             .             .             .  •          .  Ill 

A  Corner  in  Jenne,          .  .  .  .  .  .  .119 

Native  Child,       ........  121 

A  Street  in  Jenne,           .                                      ....  132 

Jenne,      .........  134 

Jenne,      .........  139 

A  Square  in  Jenne,          .......  142 

Brick-making,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .149 

House  in  Jenne,  .  .  .  .  .'  .  .  .151 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Old  Mosque  restored, 

The  Ruins  of  the  Old  Mosque,   . 

The  Cemetery  in  the  midst  of  the  Ruins, 

View  of  the  Interior  of  Jenne  and  the  Old  Mosque, 

Building  a  Large  Boat,   .... 

Jenne:  A  Corner  of  the  Quay,  . 
The  Chief  of  the  Town  of  Jenne, 
Market  in  the  Streets,     .... 

Precincts  of  the  Dwellings  of  the  Great  Merchants, 

The  Commercial  Harbour, 

Shops  of  Itinerant  Merchants,     . 

Women  selling  in  the  Streets,    . 

The  Great  Market  of  Jenne,       . 

The  Money-Changer,  t 

The  Butcher,       ...... 

Corner  of  the  Market,     . 

Jenne :  The  Hairdresser,  .  .  .  . 

Jenne :  The  Barber,        .  .  .  . 

A  Commercial  Fleet  upon  the  Niger, 

On  the  Niger,      ...... 

TheFortofElOualHadj,  . 

The  Arrival  at  Kabara,  .  . 

The  Quays  of  Kabara,       .  .  .  .  /, 

Kabara  :  The  Graves  of  the  Aube  Expedition,    . 

On  the  Quays  of  Kabara, 

Scene  at  Kabara,  ..... 

The  Fort  of  Kabara, 

The  Convoy,         ..... 

The  Dwarf  Forest,  . 

Fording  the  Stream  on  the  way  to  Timbuctoo,    . 

'  Our'  Oumaira/  ...... 

Inscription  on  Cross,       . 

Distant  View  of  Timbuctoo,        .... 

A  Street  at  the  Entrance  to  the  Town,    . 
Timbuctoo  :  The  Great  Market, . 


IX 

PAGE 

.  157 
.  161 
.  162 
.  164 
.  167 
.  169 
.  173 
.  174 
.  175 
.  176 
.  177 
.  178 
.  179 
.  180 
.  181 
182 
]83 

.  185 
190 

.  192 
.  194 
.  197 
.  198 
.  199 
.  200 
.  201 
.  202 
.  203 
.  204 
.  205 
.  206 
207 

208-209 
210 
212 


TIMBUCTOO 


A  Large  House,    ... 

The  Straw  Huts,  with  Straw  Enclosures, 

Timbuctoo  :  A  Street,      .... 

Timbuctoo  :  A  Corner  of  the  Town, 

My  Courtyard  at  Timbuctoo, 

Scene  in  Timbuctoo,        .... 

Moors  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Timbuctoo, 

Moorish  Women,  .... 

Moorish  Encampment,    .... 

School  in  a  Moorish  Encampment, 

Moorish  Flocks  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Timbuctoo, 

Touareg  with  f  Nicab '  and  e  Litham,' 

Touaregs  and  their  Flocks, 

A  Pool  at  the  Gates  of  Timbuctoo, 

Panorama  of  Timbuctoo, 

e  A  Veiled  Man  in  Sombre  Garments,'    . 

A  Thoroughfare  in  Timbuctoo,    . 

Sudanese  wearing  the  '  Dissa/    . 

Timbuctoo  :  A  Corner  of  the  Town, 

A  Caravan,  ..... 

A  Block  of  Salt,  .... 

A  Salt  Merchant,  .... 

Retailing  Salt,     ..... 

Caravan,  .  .  ... 

The  Port  of  Timbuctoo,  .... 

Halt  of  a  Caravan,  .... 

Unloading  Camels,  .... 

The  Gardens  of  Timbuctoo, 

Traders  from  the  Country  of  Mossi, 

Street  in  the  Arabian  Quarter,    . 

Gold  Merchants, 

A  Lady  of  Timbuctoo,     . 

A  Bakehouse  in  the  Street, 

Musician,  .... 

The  Mosque  of  Sankore, 


PAGE 

214 

215 

216 

.  217 
.  220 
.  221 

224 

.  225 
.  226 

227 
.  228 

229 
.  230 

233 

240-241 
.  242 
.  245 
.  24Z 
.  248 
250-251 
.  253 
.  254 

255 
.  256 

258 
.  259 

260 

.  262 
.  264 
.  265 
.  267 
.  271 
.  273 
.  274 

279 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

PAGE 

The  Tombs  Surrounding  Timbuctoo,      .....  284 

Tomb  of  a  Saint,               .......  286 

A  School  at  Jenne,           .......  290 

A  School  in  the  Street,     .                         .....  291 

A  Schoolmaster,,  ........  293 

A  Sewing-School  in  the  Sudan,   ......  296 

The  Grand  Mosque  of  Timbuctoo,           .....  300 

Behind  the  Mosque  of  Sankore,                .....  305 

Oratory  of  Sidi  Yaia,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .311 

A  Sudanese  Scene  :  A  Reading  in  the  Street,     ....  317 

Cross  raised  to  one  of  the  Companions  of  Mungo  Park,             .             .  324 

Laing's  House,      ........  326 

Caillie's  House,    .             .             .             .                          .             .             .  335 

Earth's  House,     ....                          ...  344 

View  taken  from  the  Terrace  of  Earth's  House,              .             .             .  347 

Tail-piece,            ........  351 

General  View  of  Fort  Bonnier,                 .....  356 

Entrance  to  Fort  Bonnier,           ......  361 

Fort  Philippe,      ........  363 

Colonel  Bonnier' s  Tomb  at  Timbuctoo,               .             .             .             .  367 

A  House  :  Typical  of  Timbuctoo  Restored,         ....  369 

The  Policeman  at  Timbuctoo,     ......  370 


MAPS  AND  PLANS 

PAGE 

The  Sources  of  the  Niger  Tembi,  .  .  .  44 

Map  of  the  Nigerian  Regions  as  far  as  Timbuctoo,         .  .  .49 

The  Region  of  the  Three  Deltas,  .  52 

Map  of  the  Songhoi  Emigration,  .  .  .  .  .94 

The  Early  Songhoi  Empire,        .  98 

The  Songhoi  Organisation,          .  .  .  .  .  .113 

Map  of  Jenneri,  ........       144 

The  Island  and  Town  of  Jenne,  ......       146 

Plan  of  the  Old  Mosque,  .  .  .  .  ..  .155 

Timbuctoo  and  Kabara,  showing  Inundations,    .  .  .  .196 

Plan  of  Timbuctoo,          .  .  .  .  .  .341 


CHAPTER    I 

FROM    PARIS    TO    THE  NIGER 

THE  journey  from  Paris  to  the  Niger  is  scarcely  so  simple  as 
that  from  Nice  to  Algeria. 

Having  fallen  asleep  in  a  railway  carriage  on  your  departure 
from  Paris,  you  awake  six  weeks  later  on  a  canoe-barge  upon 
the  Niger. 

The  steamer  lands  you  at  the  entrance  to  the  Senegal,  in  a 
country  which  has  belonged  to  France  for  centuries,  and  yet  is 
only  known  to  the  general  public  by  its  thermometrical  mention, 
inscribed  between  'bains  ordinaires'1  and  ' culture  des  vers  a 
sole '  at  40°  centigrade  as  '  the  temperature  of  Senegal.**  These 
rudimentary  notions  are  not  even  accurate.  Will  you  believe 
that  for  months  there  you  wear  your  greatcoat  morning  and 
evening,  the  mean  temperature  registered  at  the  local  observatory 
being  24°,  not  40°  ? 

From  Dakar  (the  port  of  Senegal,  and  the  finest  harbour  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa)  you  go  by  train  to  St.  Louis,  the 
capital  of  the  colony.  Greeting  to  those  one  hundred  and  seventy 
odd  miles  of  iron  road  !  They  are  the  first  laid  by  Europeans 
in  Negraic  Africa,  and  date  from  1882.  Civilisation  has  stamped 
other  of  its  signs  upon  these  virgin  soils.  In  St.  Louis  and  at 
Rufisk  (an  important  commercial  town  in  Dakar  Bay)  you  find 
the  streets  lighted  by  electricity ;  and  universal  suffrage  is 


2  TIMBUCTOO 

vigorously  handled  under  the  form  of  legislative  elections,  munici- 
palities, and  general  elections.  Betting  and  horse-racing  are 
treated  with  equal  vigour. 

A  small  service  of  steamers  starts  regularly  twice  a  week  from 
the  quays  of  St.  Louis  for  the  Sudan.  The  management  on 
board  is  comfortable  and  dear ;  and  you  play  poker  in  the  saloon 
just  as  on  any  big  self-respecting  steamer.  For  eight  days  you 
watch  the  banks  of  the  Senegal  monotonously  unfold  ;  then  comes 
the  morning  when  you  moor  on  a  broken  bank  at  the  foot  of  a 
huge  tree.  This  is  Kayes,  the  port  and  actual  capital  of  the 
Sudan. 

A  pestilential  corner,  and  the  solution  of  the  following  difficult 
problem  :  How  to  be  at  the  same  time  a  town  in  the  middle  of  a 
swamp  and  a  swamp  in  the  middle  of  a  town.  This  anomalous 
method  of  building  a  town  makes  you  think  for  a  moment  that 
you  have  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  world,  but  you  recover  your 
self-possession  on  seeing  the  telegraph  wires  crossing  the  street 
and  on  hearing  the  whistle  of  the  locomotives.  A  railway  in  fact 
continues  the  path  from  the  Senegal  to  the  Niger,  and  will  one 
day  carry  the  traveller  right  up  to  Bammaku  so  easily  that  we 
shall  be  able  to  reckon  it  a  fortnight  from  Paris  to  the  Niger. 

At  present  the  railway  only  extends  108  of  the  341  miles  that 
separate  Kayes  from  Bammaku.  For  the  first  78  miles  its  track 
(reduced  to  a  three-foot  way  as  are  certain  local  lines  in  France)  is 
normal  and  open  to  commercial  traffic.  Its  administration  and 
maintenance  are  in  the  hands  of  military  engineers,  and  the 
trains  arrive  at  both  ends  with  remarkable  punctuality.  Its  only 
mistake  is  in  stopping  at  Bafoulaba,  where  the  Bafing  and  the 
Bakoy  unite  to  form  the  Senegal.  After  that  you  have  to  con- 
tent yourself,  for  the  present,  with  a  decauville  for  the  130  miles 
to  Dioubaba. 


4,  TIMBUCTOO 

I  found  my  caravan,  which  had  gone  on  in  front,  awaiting  me 
at  Dioubaba.  I  picked  up  luggage,  porters,  and  horse  there, 
and  a  curious  adventure  in  addition.  I  had  stumbled  upon  a 
white  horse  in  the  early  part  of  my  journey.  I  say  stumbled, 
for  I  should  assuredly  never  have  bought  such  a  thing;  the 
colonial  administration  had  kindly  placed  it  at  my  disposal.  A 
white  horse !  What  a  predicament !  Bad  luck,  as  every  one 
knows,  bad  luck  for  the  rest  of  the  journey!  How  could  I  avert 


A   RAILWAY  STATION 

such  an  evil  omen  ?     Providence  obligingly  came  to  my  rescue  by 
one  of  those  secret  ways  which  are  His. 

I  luckily  noticed  at  Kayes  that  my  saddle-cloth  was  missing, 
and  I  tried  all  the  shops  (not  a  long  business)  without  being  able 
to  find  another.  In  these  countries  the  only  thing  you  can  find 
that  you  want  or  can  rely  upon  is — yourself.  I  had  to  fall 
back  upon  one  of  those  blankets  they  sell  to  the  negro,  and  chose 
one  that  was  cheap  and  red,  but  soft  to  the  horse's  back.  He,  the 
horse,  had  come  by  luggage-van  as  far  as  Bafoulaba,  but  as  the 
decauville  was  unable  to  carry  him  further  in  that  manner,  I  sent 
him  on  by  road  to  Dioubaba,  whilst  I  made  use  of  the  little 
railway.  It  is  just  as  well  to  avoid  twenty-eight  miles  of  road  on 


FROM    PARIS    TO    THE    NIGER  5 

horseback  when  you  have  some  hundreds  in  prospect.  It  was 
night  when  the  miniature  train  entered  the  leafy  vault  at  Diou- 
baba,  that  serves  as  station  and  waiting-room.  My  people  were 
all  asleep,  and  my  horse  peacefully  grazing.  Nothing  abnormal 
there,  apparently.  But  at  starting  next  morning,  as  I  was  about 
to  bestride  my  mount  for  the  first  time,  what  did  I  see  ? — A 
scarlet  horse !  Imagine  my  joy !  It  was  evidently  the  finger 
of  God  that  had  thus  transformed  my  steed, — aided  by  heat, 
perspiration,  and  the  negro  blanket.  Behold  me  now,  full  of 
confidence  for  the  rest  of  my  journey. 

The  adventure  did  not  end  here,  for  in  spite  of  repeated 
groomings  and  washings  it  proved  impossible  to  restore  my 
charger  to  his  original  colour.  The  dye,  detestable  for  blankets, 
is  admirable  for  horses.  My  animal  was  the  wonder  of  the  natives 
of  all  the  villages  we  passed  through.  '  Ah  !  these  white  men, 
they  said,  '  they  can  even  make  scarlet  horses  ! ' 

Enough  of  the  horse  !  Let  us  now  review  my  equipment. 
First  among  them  is  my  valet-de-chambre,  butler,  etc.,  etc.,  for 
numerous  functions  accumulate  in  the  Sudan  under  the  modest 
title  of  '  gar^on?  He  is  a  black,  thick-lipped  fellow,  with  a 
European  straw  hat,  a  white  vest  with  shiny  leather  buttons, 
short  breeches  with  narrow  blue  and  white  stripes,  naked  legs, 
and  feet  ditto.  One  of  the  survivors  of  the  Bonnier  affair,  in 
which  he  figured  under  the  title  of  « Captain  Nigotte's  servant/ 
His  master  was  the  solitary  officer  who  escaped  from  the  Touaregs, 
only  to  die  shortly  after  my  arrival.  Splendid  testimonials.  The 
doctor  says  he  is  '  an  excellent  sick-nurse.'  I  immediately  engage 
him  upon  that,  with  the  idea  that  if  I  leave  my  bones  in  the 
desert  it  will  at  least  be  with  the  conviction  that  they  have  been 
well  cared  for.  To  sum  him  up  :  he  is  a  well-balanced  person,  no 
chatterbox,  but  dignified,  as  becomes  a  person  of  note. 


6  TIMBUCTOO 

There  is  nothing  tragic  nor  historical  about  my  cook.  He  is 
my  joy,  except  in  those  deadly  moments  when  I  rage  with  despair. 
I  engaged  him  rather  hurriedly.  c  Can  you  cook  ?  '  '  Oh  yes  ! '  he 
replied,  with  the  assurance  of  every  good  nigger  when  questioned 
concerning  his  capabilities.  If  I  had  said,  '  Can  you  paint  like 
Raphael  and  Murillo  ? '  he  would  have  answered  '  Oh  yes,"  with 
equal  conviction.  In  reality  he  can  whistle  a  few  bars  of  the 
Marseillaise  tolerably  well,  and  can  boil  water  and  eggs — hard.  I 
do  all  the  rest. 

The  third  and  last  person  of  my  establishment  is  the  groom. 
A  silent,  bearded  fellow,  with  Semitic  profile.  He  leads  the  horse 
up  to  me  when  we  start,  holds  the  stirrup,  and  disappears  for 
the  rest  of  the  journey,  reappearing  at  the  end  of  it  to  hold  the 
stirrup,  and  vanish  again — with  the  animal.  Never  a  word  says 
he  to  me,  and  never  a  word  say  I  to  him.  I  do  not  even  know 
his  name  :  he  is  a  riddle,  an  enigma.  It  would  not  surprise  me  to 
learn  that  he  is  the  nigger  from  Porte  St.  Denis,  though  I  have 
not  yet  heard  the  clock  ticking  in  his  stomach. 

Around  this  trinity  circle  twenty-two  natives,  uniform  as  to 
rarity  of  drapery,  but  very  varied  as  to  coiffure.  Some  have 
hair  like  astrachan  or  door-mats ;  the  heads  of  others  are  shaved 
as  bare  as  a  lawyer's  chin  ;  some  have  a  tuft  in  the  middle,  others 
again  rejoice  in  a  circular  fringe  like  the  beard  of  some  old 
sea-dog.  Scarcely  less  variegated  are  the  colours  of  their  skins  : 
treacle  black,  charcoal  black,  dull  prune,  shiny  prune,  coffee 
colour,  Seine  colour — a  whole  scale  is  well  represented. 

Place  half  a  hundredweight  of  baskets  and  cases  upon  each 
head,  and  you  have  a  very  complete  sketch  of  the  equipment 
necessary  for  travel  in  the  Sudan. 

Having  made  use  of  various  means  of  locomotion,  since  leaving 
Paris,  for  accomplishing  his  journey  with  comfort  and  rapidity, 


FROM    PARIS    TO    THE    NIGER  7 

the  traveller  now  finds  himself  face  to  face  with  the  most  primitive 
of  all — the  road,  I  may  add,  the  African  road.  That  is  to  say, 
something  vague,  that  has  nothing  in  common  with  its  European 
prototype  but  the  name ;  something  to  which  levelling,  ballasting, 
a  firm  soil,  and  even  bridges  are  unknown.  And  it  is  only  now 
that  the  soul  of  the  African  traveller  thrills  and  tastes  of  joy. 
Another  life  is  beginning  for  him,  the  true  life,  the  only  life — the 
life  of  the  bush. 

What  makes  this  life  so  intoxicating  to  all  who  experience  it, 
from  the  officer  straight  from  the  military  academy  down  to  the 
private  or  marine-artilleryman  fresh  from  a  village  school ;  from 
the  aristocrat  of  royal  descent  to  the  professor  of  rhetoric  ?  It 
captivates  all  alike ;  the  ministerial  quill-driver  become  colonial 
official,  the  engineer,  the  artist,  and  the  man  of  commerce  who 
superintends  a  factory. 

Its  charm  cannot  easily  be  explained  to  the  sedentary  ;  it 
escapes  analysis,  being  as  subtle  as  it  is  penetrating. 

Let  me  see.  The  food  is  indifferent,  the  water  is  indifferent, 
the  sleeping  is  indifferent,  and  your  health  is  often  in  a  precarious 
state.  Heat  and  fatigue  are  the  only  things  superior  in  quality, 
and  yet  your  heart  is  filled  to  overflowing  with  contentment.  As 
it  can  hardly  be  their  inconveniences  that  make  the  hours  spent 
in  the  bush  so  delightful,  it  must  be  the  sensations  that  are 
grafted  on  them,  and  the  wonderful  pictures  accompanying  them. 
It  is  the  mingling  of  the  human  with  the  free  life  of  forests  and 
plains  that  have  existed  for  thousands  and  thousands  of  years; 
and  the  fact  that  you  are  contemplating  that  life  with  centuries 
of  civilisation  beating  in  your  veins.  It  is  something,  too,  in  the 
manner  in  which  these  people  express  their  thoughts.  You  are 
accosted  by  giants  who  could  crush  you  between  their  finger  and 
thumb,  and  who  address  you  humbly,  '  Greet  one  of  God's  poor.' 


8  TIMBUCTOO 

In  another  village  an  old  skeleton  of  a  chief  totally  ignores  your 
arrival,  your  presence,  even  your  visit.  You  stand  near  enough  to 
touch  his  foot,  and  he  continues  impassively  squatting  and  read- 
ing his  Koran,  until  you  half  expect  to  hear  the  whistling  of  a 
lance  through  the  air,  to  see  the  flash  of  a  sabre,  or  hear  the 
cocking  of  an  old  musket.  Then,  again,  some  old  negress  stops 
your  horse,  mumbling  words  that  are  unintelligible.  She  smiles 
at  you,  and  offers  you  a  handful  of  sweet  roots.  To  give  her 
pleasure,  and  because  her  wrinkled  smile  recalls  the  fact  that  such 
poor  old  things  took  pity  on  Rene  Caillie  and  Mungo  Park  (your 
predecessors  in  this  corner  of  Africa),  and  saved  them  from  dying 
of  hunger,  you  accept  her  present  of  cold  cooked  roots.  Her 
joy  is  great,  and  by  some  small  donation  you  double  it.  To 
put  the  finishing  touch  to  her  pleasing  contentment,  you  bite  one 
of  her  offerings  and  continue  your  way,  absently  munching  the 
sweet  batatas,  whose  flavour  so  strangely  recalls  the  marron  glace. 
Memory  is  sent  galloping  in  pursuit  of  visions  of  your  native  land, 
and  you  recall  the  fact  that  it  is  snowing  and  hailing  hard  there, 
while  you  have  been  gently  cooking  since  daybreak. 

And  then  life  in  the  bush  means  flocks  of  guinea-fowls  run- 
ning about  in  the  thickets,  and  coveys  of  young  partridges  that 
rise,  careless  of  sportsmen,  from  under  your  horsed  very  hoofs. 
It  means  strange,  intoxicating  scents  that  suddenly  envelop  you, 
and  leave  you  as  suddenly  as  they  came ;  and  a  delirium  of  sunsets 
passionately  colouring  a  sky  that  was  monotonously  colourless 
the  moment  before.  And  nights !  One  night  we  encamped 
in  the  huts  surrounding  a  village  square,  and  my  men  lighted 
huge  fires  in  the  open  air.  The  gleams  from  their  flames  carved 
a  vault  of  red  and  gold  upon  the  darkness,  and  under  this  arch  a 
fantastic  ballet  took  place.  The  wings  of  bats,  illuminated  from 
below,  made  streaks  of  light  upon  the  night,  like  the  trails  of 


FROM    PARIS    TO    THE    NIGER  9 

falling  stars,  and  were  distantly  encircled  with  satellites  of  fire- 
flies. 

But  I  can  only  give  a  tenth  part,  and  that  feebly,  of  the 
unexpected  sights  and  sensations  I  enjoyed.  You  cannot  taste 
lifers  choicest  morsels  reclining  in  an  arm-chair. 

Dioubaba,  the  terminus  of  the  decauville,  is  situated  in  the 
heart  of  lovely  mountain  and  river  scenery.  Its  landscape  would 
realise  a  handsome  income  in  Europe.  The  river  Bakoy,  hitherto 
closely  confined,  here  breaks  into  a  rocky  waterfall,  some  hundreds 
of  yards  in  length,  full  of  rapids  and  foaming  currents.  The 
horizon  is  bordered  by  mountain-tops,  and  the  river-banks  are 
covered  by  gigantic  trees  festooned  with  garlands  of  long  creepers. 
A  sergeant  of  the  engineers  acts  as  station-master,  and  a  sapper 
attends  to  the  telegraph.  They  are  perfectly  happy,  they  say ; 
and  are  married,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country,  of  course, 
to  two  gay  little  natives  with  charming  ways.  This  society  is 
completed  by  Bibi,  a  young  hippopotamus,  lately  captured,  and 
very  tame.  With  a  discretion,  unlocked  for  in  such  an  animal, 
he  spends  the  day  in  the  Bakoy,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  his 
friends'*  occupations.  They  go  to  the  bank  when  in  want  of 
amusement  and  call  'Bibi !  Bibi ! '  Bibi's  pink  muzzle  soon  appears; 
he  looks  round  for  them  with  his  little  black  eyes,  and,  dripping 
and  wriggling,  he  runs  up  to  be  caressed. 

The  road  from  Dioubaba  to  Bammaku  cuts  from  east  to 
west  across  the  massive  Foota  Jallon  range  that  separates  the 
basin  of  the  Senegal  from  that  of  the  Niger.  It  is  full  of  pictures 
recalling  the  Forest  of  Fontainebleau,  and  is  so  abundantly 
watered  that  you  fall  asleep  every  night  to  the  sound  of  some 
gurgling  cascade  or  waterfall.  I  know  nothing  more  suggestive 


10 


TIMBUCTOO 


than  this  road,  the  main  artery  of  the  Sudan.  You  see  the 
colonial  life  coming  and  going  upon  it  from  day  to  day ;  and  it 
also  reflects  the  retrospective  image  of  the  life  that  rolled  along 
the  great  European  highways  before  the  days  of  coaches.  With- 
out the  highwaymen,  however,  for  we  have  made  enormous  pro- 
gress since  the  pacification  of  the  Sudan  ten  years  ago.  Then, 
travellers  encamped  upon  it  with  sentinels  posted  at  night  as  if 
they  were  in  the  country  of  an  enemy.  To-day  it  is  as  safe  as  the 
Champs  Elysees. 

Not  that  vehicles  are  numerous,  but  people  are,  and  animals. 
They  are  principally  parties  of  porters  that  you  meet;  some 
travelling  to  their  destination  laden  with  cases,  and  bundles,  and 
sacks  of  millet ;  others  returning,  freed  from  their  burdens, 


ON   THE   ROAD  :    DIOULAS    HALTING 


dancing  and  capering  along  the  road  to  the  sound  of  flute  or 
drum,  joyous  as  children  let  loose  from  school.  There  are  dwulas, 
too,  or  native  commercial  travellers,  with  their  servants  or  slaves 


FROM    PARIS    TO    THE    NIGER 


11 


and  their  wives  and  children,  all  driving  donkeys  laden  with  salt 
and  pearls,  etc. 

A  meeting  between  Europeans  is  particularly  pleasant.      You 


ON   THE   ROAD  :     EUROPEANS  TRAVELLING 

exchange  bows  and  a  declension  of  names,  and  titles  when  you 
have  them  ;  and  a  long  talk  ensues  between  two  people  who  have 
never  seen  each  other  in  their  Jives  before.  News  of  the  interior 
is  exchanged  for  news  of  Europe  or  the  coast.  You  hear  what  is 
passing  in  the  countries  to  which  you  are  going  and  in  the 
countries  to  which  you  are  not  going.  You  exchange  a  thousand 
little  services,  and,  above  all,  the  time !  For  watches  in  these 
climates  develop  the  most  fantastic  manners,  and  the  only  thing 
you  can  be  sure  of  is  that  they  will  never  tell  you  the  time  even 
approximately.  After  this  you  turn  your  backs  upon  one  another 
with  all  the  grace  in  the  world,  and  each  resumes  his  journey. 

The    Europeans   you    meet   are   mostly   government    officials, 


12  TIMBUCTOO 

officers,  and  privates.  Some  are  returning  to  France  for  a  holiday, 
having  fulfilled  their  year  or  eighteen  months  of  service,  while 
others  are  newly  arrived  to  take  their  vacant  places.  Sometimes 


A   COMMISSARIAT   TRANSPORT 


you  pass  a  hand-ambulance  from  which  the  head  of  some  unlucky 
invalid  emerges,  and,  if  you  are  good-natured  and  furnished  with 
plenty  of  provisions,  it  is  very  easy  to  play  the  good  Samaritan 
on  these  occasions. 

Unfortunately  the  man  of  commerce  only  furnishes  the  smallest 
share  of  these  encounters  :  and  why  ?  The  answer  is  to  be  found 
in  the  road  itself  and  the  troops  of  porters  you  are  incessantly 
meeting  upon  it,  for  the  head  of  man  is  too  limited  a  means  of 
transport  to  permit  a  very  extensive  traffic.  Why  not  use  vehicles 
then?  The  account  given  above  of  the  pseudo  roads  of  the 
Sudan  will  answer  this  question,  for  they  exist  only  in  name. 
The  commissariat  department  knows  something  of  all  this,  for  the 
forts  we  have  set  up  in  our  vast  Nigerian  possessions  must  be 
victualled.  Europeans,  surrounded  by  black  troops,  live  in  them, 


FROM    PARIS    TO    THE    NIGER 


13 


keeping  the  country  in  order,  civilising  it,  organising  it,  and 
preparing  it  for  occupation.  It  is  of  course  necessary  to  supply 
these  garrisons  with  European  provisions,  such  as  cases  of  wine, 
great  iron  boxes  of  flour,  coffee,  sugar,  barrels  of  salt  meat,  and  arms, 
ammunition,  clothes,  tools,  etc.  To  carry  these  stores  to  the  river 
(the  only  easy  means  of  transport)  the  commissariat  possesses  carts 
which  are  set  upon  this  pretence  of  a  road ;  at  what  cost  of  time, 
trouble,  and  money  it  would  take  volumes  to  tell.  One  meets 
these  transports  from  time  to  time,  struggling  with  the  chasms 
and  other  asperities  of  the  so-called  roads.  They  are  commanded 
by  artillery  officers,  and  are  always  accompanied  by  a  veterinary ; 
but  I  prefer  to  leave  to  your  imagination  the  condition  to  which 
the  unhappy  mules  are  reduced,  even  though  they  only  do  ten  or 
twelve  miles  a  day.  It  is  a  terrible  thing  this  victualling,  its 


THE  COMMISSARIAT:  IN  FORT  BAMMAKU 

shadow  pursues  you  all  along  the  road.  Encampments  are  pro- 
vided every  ten  or  twelve  miles  with  straw  huts  for  the  men  and 
picket-lines  for  the  animals.  You  can  follow  the  progress  of  the 


14  TIMBUCTOO 

transports  by  the  litter  of  rags,  bits  of  paper  and  abandoned 
carts  they  leave  behind  them.  Two  forts  mark  the  road  from 
Badoumba  to  Kita.  Neither  is. garrisoned,  and  both  have  fallen 
a  prey  to  the  commissariat  department.  Their  various  outworks 
and  approaches  are  strewn  with  a  litter  of  cases  on  which  one 
reads  medicines,  sugar,  candles,  oil,  etc.,  and  the  names  of  the 
places  to  which  these  stores  are  destined — Farannah,  Siguiri,  Segu, 
or  Timbuctoo.  The  forts  themselves  are  filled  from  end  to  end  with 
squatting  porters  awaiting  their  share  of  burdens ;  and  you  hear, 
in  the  snatches  of  conversation  and  the  orders  that  are  flying 
about,  of  nothing  but  c  cases '  and  '  transport.1  The  impatience 
with  which  Europeans  and  natives  alike  are  awaiting  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  rail  from  Dioubaba  to  Bammaku  becomes 
suddenly  comprehensible. 

At  last  beyond  Kundu  (a  third  fort,  completely  abandoned) 
you  reach  the  line  of  cleavage  between  the  Senegal  and  Niger. 
So  far  the  country  has  been  pleasantly  varied,  recalling  some- 
what of  Switzerland  without  giving  an  equal  impression  of 
fertility;  but  in  the  next  and  last  twenty-five  miles  of  the 
road  springs  and  rivulets  multiply  at  every  step.  Agriculture, 
interspersed  with  charming  glimpses  of  silvery  water,  spreads  over 
uninterrupted  fields  for  the  rest  of  the  way.  The  villages  cluster 
closer  together,  and  are  more  densely  populated.  In  a  delight- 
ful valley  of  the  great  Kati  mountains  a  stream  tumbles  along 
between  two  rocky  ledges,  which  start  suddenly  aside  and  spread 
into  a  fan,  to  disappear  upon  the  distant  banks  of  the 
Niger. 

It  was  not  without  a  certain  amount  of  emotion  that  I 
approached  the  great  river,  and  for  this  reason.  It  was  four 
years  now  since  I  first  started  for  the  Niger  and  failed  to  reach 


FROM    PARIS    TO    THE    NIGER  15 

it !  My  then  companion,  Captain  Faidherbe,  was  making  his 
third  attempt  to  reach  that  serpent  of  Western  Africa.  In  his 
first  he  followed  the  Flatters  Mission  along  the  Southern 
Nigerian  route.  '  In  the  second,  starting  from  the  frontier  of 
Portuguese  Guinea,  he  was  stopped  by  wars  among  the  natives. 
For  the  third  time  he  started  from  Benty  and  the  Mellacoree, 
in  the  company  of  the  painter  Adrien  Marie  and  myself,  only 
to  be  cut  short  by  Samory's  troops  at  a  distance  of  twenty- 
five  miles  from  its  banks ;  and  two  years  ago  he  died  without 
having  seen  the  Niger. 

The  memory  of  his  ill-fortune  possessed  me,  and  grew  more 
intense  with  every  stage  of  the  journey.  I  had  an  idea  that 
some  of  his  ill-luck  must  pursue  me.  Assuredly  I  too  shall 
not  see  this  Niger,  I  thought.  And  now  at  last,  after  doubling 
the  stages  for  the  last  five  days  (so  great  was  my  anxiety  to 
reach  it),  my  horse  begins  to  stumble  down  the  steep  and  rocky 
declivity  that  leads  to  the  river.  I-  dismount,  and  a  fresh  anxiety 
seizes  me.  Suppose  it  is  only  another  great  disillusion  to  which 
I  am  advancing  ? 

The  narrow  path  widens  suddenly ;  its  rocky  sides  are  flung 
right  and  left  like  the  leaves  of  a  door.  'There  is  the  Djoliba,' 
says  my  historical  servant,  as  calmly  as  if  he  were  announcing 
'  Dinner  is  served.**  It  is  an  impressive  spectacle  from  the  height 
of  the  road  that  still  clings  to  the  hill.  A  vast  horizon  lies  at 
my  feet  bathed  in  the  splendours  of  a  tropical  sunset,  and 
down  there,  in  a  plain  of  gold  and  green  and  red,  shines  a  silver 
trail  bordered  by  a  line  of  darkness.  There  it  is,  a  mere  vapour, 
the  dream  of  a  river  in  a  valley  of  dreams,  and  the  dark  line  is 
the  hills  by  which  it  flows,  almost  invisibly.  'God  is  great1 
as  they  say  here.  There  is  no  disillusion,  as  is  so  often  the 
case  in  the  realisation  of  the  unknown.  I  can  scarcely  take  my 


16  TIMBUCTOO 

eyes  from  the  serenely  majestic  panorama  that  is  spread  before 
me. 

And  now  come  what  may  !  I  remount  my  horse  and  urge 
him  to  a  gallop  along  the  road,  bordered  by  trees,  that  stretches 
across  the  plain.  A  postern  stops  me,  bearing  a  placard  on  which 
is  written  in  white  letters  on  black,  like  the  name  of  a  railway 
station  :  Bammaku. 


I 


CHAPTER    II 

THE    NIGER 

THE  Niger,  with  its  vast  and  misty  horizons,  is  more  like  an 
inland  ocean  than  a  river.  Borne  along  upon  it,  scarcely 
seeing  land,  the  traveller  is  carried  away  by  those  endless 
dreams  which  haunt  the  infinitudes  of  the  sea.  Its  waters 
break  upon  its  banks  in  the  monotonously  cadenced  waves 
of  the  Mediterranean  shores  ;  and  when  winds,  grown  to 
violence  in  the  desert,  swell  its  waves  into  a  great  race,  sea- 
sickness will  convince  the  most  rebellious  that  the  river  Niger 
is  of  kin  to  oceans. 

Its  shores,  no  less  than  its  waves,  resemble  those  of  the 
ocean.  Only  occasionally  rising  into  cliffs,  as  at  Koulikoro,  they 
more  frequently  call  to  mind  our  own  Atlantic  strands,  being 
formed,  not  of  the  white  impalpable  dust  of  the  desert,  but  of 
the  true  reddened  shingle  of  the  beach. 

Like  the  oceans,  the  Niger  possesses  its  sailors,  not  merely 
occasional  seamen,  but  whole  populations,  privileged  to  serve  it 
exclusively,  living  for  it  and  by  it  alone.  They  are  the  Somnos 
or  Bosos,  and  are  not  the  aboriginals  of  the  Nigerian  countries, 
but  were  among  the  first  of  those  great  migrations  of  people 
who  saw  Western  Africa  across  the  centuries.  The  history  of 

18 


THE    NIGER 


19 


their  origin  is  shrouded  in  a  legend   which   the  ancient  among 
them  are  very  willing  to  impart. 

'Our  ancestors,1  they  say,  'came  from  the  great  mountains 
of  the  East.1  Do  they  mean  the  mountains  of  Ethiopia? 
Could  they  have  come  from  the  hills  surrounding  the  Upper 
Nile  ?  They  have  no  idea.  Nothing  in  their  features  recalls 

the    marked  type  of  the 
Eastern     African,    and 
their  skins  are  as  black 
to-day  as  those  of 
the  natives  of  the 


A    FISHING-VILLAGE   ON    THE   BANKS   OF   THE   NIGER 

Sudan.  The  one  thing  their  legend  preserves  for  certain  is,  that 
even  in  those  early  times  they  were  a  purely  aquatic  people. 
They  fished  and  navigated  for  the  king  of  their  country,  being 
bond-servants,  apparently,  to  the  crown.  The  Sudanese  to  this 
day  do  not  reckon  them  among  the  free  tribes. 

Thus  they  boated  and  fished  upon  their  rivers,  until  one  day 
the  king  wished  them  to  build  him  houses  and  bridges.  This 
was  a  task  alien  to  their  caste,  the  work  of  slaves  according  to 


TIMBUCTOO 


their  ideas,  and 
therefore  repug- 
nant to  them. 
In  revenge  they 
offered  their  king 
a  present  of 
poisoned  tor- 
toise, of  which 
he  ate  and  died  ; 
whereupon  they 
took  flight  in 

their  vessels,  carrying  all  the  boats  with  them,  to  ensure  against 
pursuit.  They  followed  the  course  of  river  after  river  in  their 
flight  until  they  arrived  at  the  Niger,  which,  according  to  them, 
flowed  to  the  north. 

And  there  they  live  to  this  day,  lining  its  streams  and 
tributaries  with  villages  that  recall  the  fishing-hamlets  of  our 
own  coasts.  They  form  the  sole  population  of  these  settlements 
and  occupy  distinct  quarters  in  the  towns  and  cities,  thus  em- 
phasising the  fact  that  the  Bosos  still  belong  exclusively  to  the 
river.  All  this  gave  me  a  reflex  affection  for  them  which 
increased  with  knowledge,  gained  by  many  days  spent  in  the 
midst  of  their  lives.  I  have  seen  them  set  out  to  the  capture 
of  their  great  prey  (the  alligator  and  sea-cow),  looking,  the  black 
Bosos  in  his  black  canoe,  like  a  bronze  group  against  the  blinding 
light.  In  the  bow  of  the  long,  narrow,  unsteady  pirogue  one 
of  their  number  stands  upright  in  a  fine  attitude  of  attack, 
whilst  the  other,  crouching  in  the  stern,  noiselessly  obeys  the 
directions  of  his  companion.  Silently,  almost  without  movement, 
they  advance  until  the  watchful  eye  in  the  bow  discerns  some 
alligator  asleep  on  the  tide,  or  some  great  bearded  fish  dozing 


THE    NIGER  21 

betwixt  wind  and  water.  Then  the  nude  silhouette  in  the  bow 
is  strained  by  a  beautiful  movement  of  the  free  body,  the  right 
arm  is  poised,  and  the  harpoon  flung,  striking  the  great  beast 
unawares. 

The  Bosos  is  not  only  the  fisherman,  he  is  also  the  boatman 
of  the  Niger,  and  I  have  seen  him  exert  admirable  physical 
qualities  in  this  latter  capacity,  yielding  nothing  in  sobriety  and 
endurance  to  the  ocean-going  sailor.  The  six  or  eight  men 
forming  the  crew  of  my  boat  worked  day  and  night,  alternately 
sitting  to  wield  the  paddle  when  the  water  was  deep,  and  stand- 
ing, when  the  bottom  could  be  felt,  to  ply  the  long  bamboo 
poles.  This  variation  was  the  only  relaxation  they  allowed 
themselves  besides  a  few  moments  for  their  meals.  And  what 
meals  they  were  !  If  I  had  permitted  it,  a  few  handfuls  of 
millet  seed,  neither  cooked  nor  ground,  but  merely  moistened 
with  water,  would  have  amply  satisfied  them.  Sometimes  when 
the  moon  was  late  in  rising,  or  slumber  proved  too  inviting, 
one  of  their  number  would  chant  some  monotonous  and  melan- 
choly refrain  to  which  the  singer  improvised  brief  couplets  which 
were  taken  up  in  chorus  by  his  comrades.  Now  and  again  they 
would  rouse  themselves  to  greater  exertions  by  their  cry  of 
6  Tara  (quickly),  tara,  Bosos ! '  The  six  or  seven  days  of  our 
journeying  were  only  broken  by  some  four  or  five  hours  of 
indifferent  repose,  uncomfortably  snatched  at  the  bottom  of  the 
boat,  and  disturbed  by  the  continued  paddling  of  their  com- 
panions. Could  any  men  of  our  race  furnish  a  like  example  of 
endurance  ?  The  chatter  and  laughter  were  a  little  less  perhaps 
in  the  last  few  days,  and  they  had  recourse  rather  more  fre- 
quently to  powdered  tobacco  (their  only  stimulant),  which  some 
thrust  up  their  nostrils  and  others  into  their  mouths.  These 
were  the  only  signs  of  unusual  fatigue  which  they  permitted  to 


22  TIMBUCTOO 

appear.  Nor  were  their  exertions  undertaken  from  any  motives 
of  devotion,  but  for  a  man  whom  they  had  never  seen  until  a 
few  moments  before  starting,  and  whom  they  knew  they  would 
leave  soon  after  reaching  their  destination.  Moreover,  my  very 
eagerness  to  press  forward  was  unintelligible  to  them.  Time 
has  neither  value  nor  meaning  for  them ;  they  do  not  even  know 
their  own  ages,  and  their  life  is  merely  a  road,  sometimes  long, 
sometimes  short,  but  in  any  case  leading  nowhere. 

For  the  first  few  days  I  had  to  discipline  and  threaten  a 
little,  and,  when  warnings  failed,  to  distribute  a  few  blows.  A 
strict  impartiality  always  determined  these  awards,  and  since  a 
rigid  sense  of  justice  is  preserved  in  all  primitive  natures,  they 
bore  me  no  ill-will  for  the  chastisement.  With  the  mark  of 
the  blow  still  showing  grey  on  their  black  shoulders,  they  would 
seize  the  first  and  least  pretext  to  shout  with  laughter,  while 
the  boat  slipped  along  .with  increased  rapidity  to  the  cry  of 
'  Tara,  tara,  Bosos  ! ' 

One  more  tribute  I  will  pay  them.  Alone  among  them, 
distant  many  days1  journey  from  the  white  man,  and  travelling 
through  an  imperfectly  conquered,  sometimes  openly  hostile 
country,  never  once  did  I  feel  that  my  safety  was  in  any  way 
threatened.  Was  it  entirely  owing  to  the  superiority  of  the 
white  man,  a  conviction  of  which  becomes  firmly  impressed  upon 
one  (in  spite  of  natural  modesty  and  philosophy)  as  one  traces 
one's  path  through  these  virgin  countries  ?  Did  not  this  sense 
of  security  proceed  as  much  from  a  contemplation  of  the  attrac- 
tive manners  daily  displayed  before  my  eyes,  the  litany  of  greet- 
ings exchanged  with  the  unknown  occupants  of  the  canoes  we 
met  or  overtook,  and  the  good-nature  and  disinterestedness 
evinced  by  all  ?  Fishing  Bosos  would  spontaneously  offer  my 


THE    NIGER  23 

men  a  share  of  their  catch,  a  fine  fish,  or  a  portion  of  alligator. 
Hardly  slackening  the  pace  to  receive  the  gift,  thanks  would 
still  be  flying  when  we  had  left  the  giver  far  behind.  '  Tara, 
tara,  Bosos  ! ' 

Is  it  surprising  that  the  hours  spent  upon  the  vast  dominions 
of  the  Niger  should  seem  pleasant  to  me  ?  Is  it  not  probable  that 
they  will  represent  the  happiest  hours  of  my  life  as  I  watch  my 
staff'  of  travel  burning  on  my  hearth  ?  They  will  remain  as  the 
souvenirs  of  a  cruise  into  infinite  space  and  liberty,  as  a  brief 
escape  from  the  thousand  fetters  mankind  has  placed  upon  man 
under  the  pretence  of  progress.  Their  memory  is  a  vision  of 
a  primeval  existence  ignorant  of  good  and  evil,  living,  without 
effort  and  without  laws,  an  upright  and  good  life.  It  was,  in 
short,  a  flight  from  all  the  falseness  and  corruption  that  civilisa- 
tion has  put  into  the  heart  of  man,  the  realisation  of  the  dream 
which,  though  played  with  by  many  philosophies,  has  been  accom- 
plished by  none. 

Ah,  that  delightful,  that  matchless  cruise,  which  you,  for- 
tunate possessors  of  fast,  sumptuous,  and  elegant  yachts,  can  never 
enjoy  ! 

My  yacht  would  have  ill-supported  any  one  of  those  adjectives, 
for  it  was  a  whimsical  mixture  of  European  barge  and  aboriginal 
canoe.  It  had  borrowed  from  the  former  its  breadth  of  beam 
and  its  flat  bottom,  and  from  the  latter  its  sharply  pointed 
extremities  and  its  deplorable  facility  for  springing  a  leak.  A 
thatched  hollow  served  me  amidships  as  bedroom,  dining-room, 
study,  and  dressing-room.  I  enjoyed,  moreover,  an  amphibious 
existence,  for  the  water  unceasingly  trickled  through  the  flooring 
into  my  apartment.  A  small  folding  bedstead  was  my  only  piece 
of  furniture.  Table,  cupboards,  desk,  washstand,  and  sideboard 
were  represented  by  different  packages,  wicker  baskets,  bottle- 


24  TIMBUCTOO 

cases,  and  portmanteaux.  A  long  box  filled  with  earth  served  as 
kitchen  and  stove,  and  was  placed  fore  and  aft  in  accordance 
with  the  direction  of  the  wind.  In  the  remaining  very  limited 
spaces  the  seven  or  eight  men  who  handled  the  boat  were  dis- 
tributed, together  with  two  bleating  sheep  (representing  our 
meat-supply)  and  some  clucking  hens.  The  game  brought 
down  by  lucky  shots,  and  the  fish  and  other  properties  of 
my  men,  were  extra ;  and,  in  addition  to  all  this,  some  place 
had  to  be  found  for  the  kitchen  fuel.  For  the  benefit  of 
those  who  like  figures  and  complicated  problems,  I  will  add  that 
my  Noah's  ark  measured  twenty-six  feet  three  by  seven  feet  six  in 
the  widest  part. 

Obviously  it  would  have  embarrassed  me  to  give  one  of  those 
Trouville  or  Cannes  fetes  to  which  my  fellow-yachtsmen  are 
accustomed,  but  luckily  the  occasion  never  arose.  Yet  fetes  there 
were,  provided  day  and  night  by  the  Niger  with  a  variety  and 


-  *  -* 


- 


MY    YACHT 


THE    NIGER  25 

splendour  that  the  richest  merchant  in  sugar-plums  could  not 
have  equalled.  Its  waters  were  now  blue  as  the  Mediterranean, 
now  grey  as  the  North  Sea,  and  now  again  they  were  apparelled 
in  the  green  of  the  great  ocean ;  while  Venus  Anadiomenes  in 

black  sported  upon 

~''£s2*^  -  <-<fflfc*"i—  its  banks.     If  these 

latter  were  not  smil- 
ingly coiling  their 
tresses,  it  was  only 
because  their  hair 
was  short  and 
greased  with  butter. 
Failing  this  poetic 
occupation,  they 
were  engaged  in 
alternately  scrub- 
bing their  cooking 


ON  THE  BANKS  OF  THE  NIGER  :  THE  VENUS  ANADIOMENES 

utensils  and  washing  their  children  in  the  splashing  wave.  Art, 
however,  lost  nothing  by  that,  for,  in  their  constantly  changing 
attitudes,  their  perfect  nudity  only  served  to  call  attention  to 
their  marvellously  sculptured  torsos  and  their  bronze  skins, 
touched  into  gold  by  the  brightness  of  the  sunshine. 


26  TIMBUCTOO 

Here  and  there  upon  the  great  strands  were  playing  the  strange 
childish  forms,  with  the  great  heads  and  stomachs'balanced  on  the 
slender  limbs,  of  the  negro  babies.  Drolly  would  they  interrupt 
their  games  and  run  close  to  the  river-bank  to^watch  the  white 


THE   MILITARY  SALUTE 


man  pass,  making  him  the  while — a  military  salute !  Nothing 
more  comical  could  be  imagined  than  these  little  naked  caricatures 
with  one  arm  stiffly  raised  at  an  angle.  If  I  smiled,  they  gave  me 
back  the  same  broad  laugh  the  Venus  Anadiomenes  had  tossed 
me  with  their  '  Anissagai '  (Good  day) — the  same  that  my  Bosos 
laughed  a  minute  after  they  had  been  struck.  This  gentle 
laughter,  with  neither  intellect  nor  malice  in  it,  is  always  ready 
to  their  lips,  even  in  the  most  serious  circumstances,  and  is  as 
necessary  to  their  existence  apparently  as  food  or  water.  It  is  the 
happy  mirth  of  a  childish  people,  ignorant  of  the  physical  and 
moral  torments  from  which  the  more  perfect  man  results. 

The  placid  fisher  with  the  line  also  greets  us  in  military 
fashion.  This  form  of  salutation  seems  to  be  the  only  thing 
that  our  civilisation  has  brought  them  so  far.  Poor  souls  !  when 
the  rest  has  followed  they  will  have  ceased  to  laugh. 

Between  Segu  and  the  regions  bordering  Timbuctoo  I  passed 


THE    NIGER  27 

wonderful  herds  of  oxen,  horses,  goats,  and  sheep.  Unlike  the 
stunted  cattle  and  emaciated  hacks  of  the  countries  of  the  Niger's 
source,  these  oxen  had  imposing  humps,  and  the  horses  were  on 
the  lines  of  Arabs.  The  sheep,  too,  were  astonishing.  Long 
fleece  replaced  the  close  wool  of  the  southern  animal,  and  their 
flocks  were  to  be  counted  by  sucli  thousands  of  heads  that  I  was 
greeted  at  long  distances  by  ovations  of  bleating. 

Travelling  one  day  between  Lake  Debo  and  Sarafara,  it  was 
given  me  to  see  quite  another  sort  of  herd.  We  were  touching 
upon  a  large  plain  bordered  by  a  distant  wood,  when  suddenly, 
at  sunset,  four  black  lions  appeared  walking  in  Indian  file. 
They  advanced  with  slow  and  solemn  steps,  pausing  with  heads 
erect  as  the  sound  of  our  paddles  reached  them.  After  fixing 
upon  us  a  look  that  was  half-displeased,  half-disdainful,  they 
turned  their  backs  upon  us,  and,  still  keeping  the  same  order, 
disappeared  with  unmoved  slowness  and  solemnity  in  the  wooded 


-**,    _ 


PASTURE   ON    THE   SHORES   OF   THE   NIGER 

green  of  the  distance.  The  scene  was  so  captivating  that  the 
thought  of  my  Winchester  never  entered  my  head.  The  gun 
was  always  at  hand,  however,  to  spread  a  little  perturbation 
(impossible  to  effect  more  appreciable  results)  among  the  families 


28  TIMBUCTOO 

of  hippopotami  who,  towards  evening,  thrust  their  pink  muzzles  out 
of  the  water,  and  to  annoy  the  numerous  alligators  who  relaxed 
in  sunny  slumbers  throughout  the  day. 

The  feathered  species  did  not  get  off  so  cheaply,  however, 
especially  the  wild  ducks,  whom,  at  my  leisure,  I  would  invite 
to  my  table  in  the  shape  of  roast  or  stew.  The  white  ospreys, 
the  Niger's  favourite  bird,  were  truly  innumerable.  They  dappled 
the  banks,  looking  like  flakes  of  precious  snow,  with  silky  reflec- 
tions made  lustrous  by  the  sun.  The  gracious  outlines  of  their 
slender  forms,  the  supple  necks  and  long  slim  legs,  stood  out 
in  such  dainty  visions  from  the  green  grass  and  grey  banks  that 
one  shot  them  remorsefully.  Alas  !  their  death-warrant  is  written 
and  attached  to  the  base  of  their  slender  necks ;  for  it  is  there, 
and  not  on  their  heads,  that  the  fragile  plumes  grow — delicate 
emblems  of  themselves  and  of  those  alone  who  should  be  privileged 
to  wear  them.  From  these  plumes,  in  fact,  are  made  those  precious 
parures  which,  mounted  in  jewelled  clasps,  place  such  a  charming 
point  of  pride  upon  the  forehead  of  brunette  and  blonde  alike. 
The  allurement  of  such  a  spoil,  seen  in  imagination  adorning 
some  cherished  head,  dispels  all  remorse,  and  hastens  the  fall  of  the 
trigger. 

The  confidence  of  these  charming  birds  is  very  great,  for  the 
native,  disdainful  of  its  flesh  and  ignorant  of  the  value  of  its 
plumes,  has  never  hunted  it.  They  alight  boldly  in  the  midst  of 
the  flocks  of  sheep  that  have  such  an  inexplicable  attraction  for 
them,  and  it  is  very  quaint  to  see  groups  of  two  or  three  ospreys 
surround  each  sheep,  and  with  gravely  measured  steps  follow  its 
browsing  until  the  innocent  ruminant  looks  like  some  captive  sur- 
rounded by  its  gaolers. 

Other  birds  of  valuable  feather  dart  about  the  sands,  such  as 
the  marabou,  metallic  blackbirds,  kingfishers  in  every  shade  of 


THE    NIGER  29 

wonderful  azure,  and  flocks  of  guinea-fowls,  flamingoes,  and  pelicans. 
Sometimes,  on  approaching  the  sedgy  banks,  a  strange  rustling  is 
followed  by  a  cloud  of  dust.  It  is  caused  by  those  tiny  creatures, 
scarcely  bigger  than  crickets,  the  millet-eaters.  I  must  not  forget 
to  mention  the  trumpet-bird  among  my  intimate  friends — a  large 
black  wader,  whose  note  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  horn  of 
our  tramways. 

As  infinitely  varied  as  the  colours  of  the   kingfisher  are  the 
scenes   in  which  this   medley  of  life  unfolds.      At  Toulimandio 


THE   SHORES    OF    LAKE   DEBO   AT   GOURAO  :    GUNBOAT   STATION 


the  shores  are  formed  of  high  woods  of  wonderful  verdure, 
dark  and  deep  as  velvet,  and  the  mountains  seen  in  the  distance 
are  the  last  ramifications  of  the  Foota  Jallon  range.  Were 
it  not  for  the  unaccustomed  proportions  of  the  river  and  the 
marvellous  sun,  there  would  be  nothing  specially  tropical  about 
this  country. 

Little  by  little  the  woods  thin  and  the  trees  diminish  in 
height.  The  river-bed  is  strewn  with  trunks  torn  from  the  banks 
by  the  floods,  and  many  more  hang  disconsolately  over  the  water, 
certain  victims  to  the  approaching  inundations. 


30  TIMBUCTOO 

At  Nyamina,  Segu,  and  Sansanding,  the  woods  give  place  to 
great  plains  of  tillage  and  cattle-rearing,  that  spread  further  than 
the  eye  can  reach,  and  close  upon  them  follows,  with  Lake  Debo, 
a  maritime  scene.  This  lake  is  a  huge  basin  of  water  by  the 
side  of  the  river,  and,  the  two  hillocks  guarding  its  entrance 
being  passed,  a  veritable  sea  spreads  before  you.  Water  every- 
where, always,  and  for  ever.  Its  shores  are  invisible,  for  no  distant 
mountains  betray  their  boundaries,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Swiss 
lakes. 

An  equally  unexpected  vision  awaits  the  traveller  beyond 
Lake  Debo ;  and  it  is  now  a  landscape  from  Normandy  or 
England  that  is  disclosed  to  eyes  stupefied  by  such  an  apparition 
in  the  heart  of  tropical  Africa.  Great  meadows  of  a  moist, 
intense  green  are  bordered  by  park-like  woods.  So  vivid  is  the 
impression  that  you  are  disappointed  not  to  see  the  turrets  and 
battlements  of  a  Lancashire  manor,  or  the  slated  roofs  of 
some  Chateau  of  the  Eure,  rising  from  their  midst.  The  superb 


MOUNT   ST.    CHARLES,    AT   THE   ENTRANCE   TO   LAKE   DEBO 


THE    NIGER 


31 


troops   of  humped   cattle,  large   and   sleek,   scarcely  dispel   this 
northern  illusion. 

All  this  changes  after  Sarafara,  and  it  is  now  the  tangle  of  a 
tropical  forest  that  defiles  before  my  yacht,  now  some  Eastern 
scene  that  I  have  already  witnessed  in  Egypt  or  Syria.  Palm- 


MOUNT   ST.    HENRI 


trees,  slenderly  erect,  dominate  a  scanty  vegetation  containing 
the  melancholy  green  of  the  olive  -  trees  of  Palestine,  and 
thickets  of  low  bushes  that  recall  the  fig-trees  of  Judaea. 

El  Oual  Hadj  passed,  bright  green  stretches  of  quite 
another  character  appear,  and  the  villages  no  longer  crowd 
together  upon  the  bank,  but  are  scattered  out  of  sight,  far 
removed  from  the  river-banks  on  account  of  the  floods.  The 
only  perceptible  signs  of  life  come  from  the  fires  of  these  villages, 
that  streak  the  sky  with  ribbons  of  smoke  by  day  and  tinge  it 
with  red  at  night.  You  may  travel  miles  and  miles  without 
seeing  a  living  thing,  man  or  beast,  upon  the  shores.  An 
atmosphere  of  secrecy  hovers  over  the  country  :  you  suddenly 
recall  the  fact  that  those  mysterious  Touaregs  are  still  momen- 
tarily its  masters  and  oppressors,  and  you  slip  sixteen  balls  into 
your  Winchester. 


TIMBUCTOO 


Finally,  on  the  borders  of  Timbuctoo  the  dunes  of  the 
Sahara  begin  to  oppose  the  sterility  of  their  bare  whiteness  to  the 
river,  increasing  in  number  until  the  desert  itself  is  behind  them. 

Varied  as  these  scenes  are,  they  possess  a  still  further  element 

of  change  in  the  formidable 
rising  and  falling  of  the  river. 
A  scene  known  at  the  height 
of  the  waters  is  unrecognis- 
able in  the  fall.  Taking  the 
same  route  after  some  months1 


OYSTER-BEDS   AT   SEGU 


interval,  you  seem  to  be  following  an  entirely  different  river. 
Where  before  you  sailed  in  the  midst  of  plains,  you  now  pass 
between  banks  some  twenty-six  feet  high.  There,  where  a  vast 
stretch  of  water  gave  the  impression  of  a  sea,  you  find  a  combina- 
tion of  pools  and  sandbanks  recalling  the  flat  shores  of  the  ocean 
at  low  tide.  At  Timbuctoo  it  flows  in  swift  and  foaming 


UNIVERSITY  V 

OF 


THE    NIGER  33 

torrents,  its  sides  and  bed  being  encumbered  with  rocks.  The 
towns  and  villages,  at  which  you  had  gone  ashore  to  the  nearest 
houses,  are  now  perched  upon  mounds  encircled  by  vigorously 
growing  grass,  and  wearing  the  little  airs  of  a  Rhenish  burg. 
Fields  of  tobacco-plants  and  kitchen  gardens  flourish  on  the 
uncovered  banks,  while  before  Segu  the  oyster-beds  pierce  the 
surface  of  the  water.  This  is  in  the  fall. 

All  the  effects  of  the  rise  originate  from  below  Lake  Debo, 
at  Mopti,  where  the  river  is  joined  by  another  as  important  as 
itself,  namely,  the  Bani.  Towards  December  they  have  become 
a  vast  mass  of  waters  rushing  to  the  north,  and  entire  plains  are 
submerged  to  a  considerable  depth.  On  the  right  of  Lake  Debo 
an  immense  region  to  which  the  little  arm  of  Koli-Koli  formerly 
gave  access,  has  now  become  a  fief  of  the  Niger.  The  greatest 
surprise  of  all  awaits  the  traveller  here,  for  it  is  literally  a  sea 
of  grass.  How  does  that  strike  you,  my  luxurious  fellow- 
yachtsmen  ?  It  is  in  truth  a  singular  element,  being  neither 


' 

THROUGH  THE  SEA  OF  GRASS 
C 


34  TIMBUCTOO 

land  nor  water,  but  a  strange  mixture  of  both ;  without  being 
a  marsh,  however,  for,  the  waters  not  being  stagnant,  the  passing 
breeze  raises  no  fetid  odour.  From  a  depth  of  six  to  eight  feet 
the  tall  grasses  emerge,  thick  and  green,  and  wearing  all  the 
appearance  of  a  great  field.  One  of  our  sheep  was  so  deceived 
by  it  that  he  threw  himself  overboard,  thinking  to  arrive  on 
pasturage,  but  committed  suicide  instead. 

Between  banks  perfectly  clear  cut,  though  formed  solely  by 
grass,  winds  that  Koli-Koli  which  has  brought  hither  and 
spread  afar  all  these  waters.  The  boundaries  of  Lake  Korienza 
are  no  less  sharply  defined  in  this  bizarre  element. 

In  crossing  this  region  my  Bosos  recommended  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  easy,  but  infinitely  capricious  and  winding,  course  of 
the  Koli-Koli.  The  journey,  they  say,  will  be  greatly  lessened 
by  cutting  straight  across  this  sea  of  green,  a  change  of  route 
that  suits  me  to  perfection. 

Paddling  being  no  longer  possible,  the  men,  leaning  heavily 
on  their  bamboos,  push  the  boat  vigorously  through  the  grass, 
which,  parting  in  front,  closes  together  behind  us  with  loud 
rustling  and  crackling.  We  are  no  longer  upon  the  water,  but 
seem,  and  it  is  a  truly  exotic  sensation,  to  be  sliding  under  a 
tropical  sun  over  grassy  steppes  streaked  with  watery  paths. 
This  region  of  navigable  grass  is  a  world  apart ;  the  repeated 
passage  of  canoes  has  worn  away  the  green  and  traced  ribbons  of 
water  on  its  surface,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  constant  tread 
of  man  and  beast  upon  the  earth  destroys  the  grass  and  exposes 
the  bare  soil.  These  paths,  as  conventionality  would  require  of 
them,  are  beautifully  flowered.  Placid  water-lilies  adorn  their 
surfaces  with  cups  of  white,  mauve,  and  yellow,  and  they  are 
further  encompassed  by  a  strange  tropical  bindweed  looking 
like  chaplets  of  floating  onions.  With  this  trivial,  perhaps,  but 


THE    NIGER 


35 


certainly  apt,  comparison  they  possess  another  point  of  resemblance, 
they  are  edible,  and  are  greatly  esteemed  by  the  native  in  times' 
of  dearth. 

It  would  be  ungrateful  if  among  all  these  pictures,  pale  images 
as  they  are  of  hours  of  enchantment,  I  forgot  to  include  the 
twilights  and  nights  upon  the  Niger. 

The  moments  of      $      sunset    upon    the    river   are  those 
the     greatest     in-    /      tensity  of  life.      The  canoes  multiply 
near  the  villages     7      bringing  the  fruit  of  the  field  to  build- 
ings to  which     /         the    people    will    flock     for    to-morrow's 
market.       /  The  ferry-boat  causes  the  river  to  resound 


THE   FERRY-BOAT 


with  gay  chatter  and  laughter,  the  bleating  of  sheep,  and 
the  clucking  of  frightened  poultry.  In  the  solitudes  beyond 
human  habitation  the  timid  hippopotamus,  again  become  the 
autocrat  of  the  river,  gambols  grotesquely  in  the  water,  prudently 
waiting  until  nightfall  to  come  ashore  and  dine;  and  the 
great  trees  on  the  bank  are  so  whitened  at  this  hour  by  the 


36  TIMBUCTOO 

sleeping  ospreys  that  they  seem  to  have  been  covered  by  a  fall  of 


snow. 


I  now  join  a  village  and  spread  my  table-cloth  on  some  grassy 
hillock  close  to  the  river-bank.  Very  animated  and  well  attended 
are  my  dinners.  First  the  children  come,  consumed  with  curiosity 
to  see  the  white  man,  but  a  little  apprehensive  too.  They  advance 
timidly,  evidently  feeling  for  me  some  of  the  fear  which  the  negro 
inspires  in  white  children.  A  few  lumps  of  sugar  soon  tame  them, 
however,  and  then,  duly  apprised,  the  chief  and  notabilities  of  the 
village  arrive.  They  salute  me  and  offer  (read  '  sell ')  presents  of 
milk,  eggs,  and  poultry,  and,  business  being  done,  I  detain  them 
with  a  little  of  those  two  precious  commodities,  tobacco  and  salt. 

We  light  great  fires  as  night  falls,  and  they  bring  out  their 
little  clay  pipes,  their  snuff-boxes,  or  some  kola-nuts,  and  a  long 
gossip  ensues.  Absorbing  landscape  all  day,  night  reveals  to 
me  the  soul  and  thoughts  of  the  country,  its  history,  and  the  why 
of  a  thousand  things  the  sight  of  which  had  puzzled  me  during 
the  day.  Above  everything,  I  enjoyed  evoking  oral  traditions 
concerning  the  first  appearance  of  the  white  man  in  these  parts. 
Mungo  Park,  the  first  European  to  explore  the  Niger,  is  the  most 
vividly  remembered.  I  frequently  heard,  between  Nyamina  and 
Khabara,  of  Bonci-Ba  (the  great  beard),  a  name  given  him  by 
the  Nigerian  tribes,  but  I  could  find  no  trace  of  our  own  Rene 
Caillie  even  at  Timbuctoo  itself.  Earth's  voyage,  though  not 
accomplished  in  these  regions,  is  well  known  by  report  of  people 
who  saw  him  or  heard  him  spoken  of  in  Timbuctoo.  The  old 
men,  with  wrinkled  skins  and  white  hair  and  eyebrows,  were  my 
favourite  historians.  They  could  recall  to  me  the  past  prosperity 
and  great  commerce  of  the  Valley  of  the  Niger.  They  told  me  of 
the  desolating  conquerors  and  disastrous  wars  of  the  present  cen- 


THE     NIGER  37 

tury  ;  of  Cheikou  Alimadou,  the  fanatic  Foulbe  king,  who  changed 
the  prosperity  of  former  days  to  misery.  Timbuctoo  \vas  the 
most  frequent  subject  of  my  questions.  It  was  the  home  of 

I 

their  youthful  memories,  and  they  would  speak  of  it  enthusi- 
astically, and  with  laughter — much  laughter— at  the  recol- 
lections of  their  gay  life  there,  the  tt  lively  frolics  which 


GOING   ASHORE    IN    THE    EVENING 


sweetened  their  labours,  and  the  especially  vivid  remembrance  of 
the  bewitching  beauty  of  the  ladies  of  Timbuctoo. 

In  the  villages  of  the  Bosos  the  Niger  formed  the  basis  of  our 
conversation.     They  would  narrate  to  me  the  legends  and  the  life 


38  TIMBUCTOO 

and  being  of  the  giant.  On  the  margin  of  Lake  Debo,  they  told 
me,  a  treasure  of  gold  was  hidden  in  the  hillock,  which  Rene  Caillie 
pompously  christened  '  Mont  St.  Charles,1  and  which  they  call 
Mount  Sorba.  The  treasure  remains  undiscovered  to  this  day. 
They  often  alluded  to  a  very  large  town  situated  on  a  lake  called 
Guido.  It  was  the  centre  of  a  powerful  empire,  which,  with  its 
capital,  has  now  entirely  disappeared. 

Finally,  with  so  many  other  affinities  to  the  great  oceans,  the 
Niger  could  not  decently  lack  its  romances  of  pirates.  They  had 
their  nest  at  Sibi,  a  large  village  crowning  a  high  mound  on  the 
Black  Niger.  It  was  passed  daily  by  numberless  boats  laden  with 
the  produce  of  Massina  and  Farinanka.  Kaid-Ali,  the  chief  of 
the  pirates,  was  taken  with  the  ingenious  idea  of  stretching  an  iron 
chain  across  the  river,  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  these 
boats,  which  he  pillaged  at  leisure. 

These  Bosos,  living  at  a  distance  of  eight  hundred  and  seventy 
miles  from  the  coast,  possess,  as  one  might  imagine,  no  idea  of  the 
sea  or  of  the  part  of  outlet  that  it  plays  to  the  rivers.  The 
question  of  what  becomes  of  the  Niger  beyond  the  regions  they 
know  troubles  them  very  little.  I  sometimes  attempted,  in  the 
course  of  conversation,  to  enlighten  their  minds  on  this  point. 
Having  one  day  captured  an  unusually  intelligent  Bosos,  I  made 
him  enumerate  all  the  towns  he  knew,  or  had  heard  of,  down  the 
Niger.  '  Sarafara,  Khabara,  Gao,"  he  came  to  a  standstill.  '  Well ! 
and  beyond  them,  what  becomes  of  the  river?'  'Beyond  them,1 
he  reflected.  '  Oh  !  beyond  them  the  fishes  swallow  it.1 

When  I  found  some  village  particularly  rich  in  information  and 
the  power  of  imparting  it,  I  would  stay  over  the  following  day  in 
order  to  renew  the  nocturnal  chat,  generally  retiring  to  the  river 
at  night  on  account  of  its  beneficial  freshness.  In  the  distance, 
beacon-like  fires  blazing  on  the  brim  of  the  great  river  would 


THE    NIGER  39 

indicate  some  native  ball,  and  on  approaching  one  could  hear  the 
droning  of  tom-toms  and  the  cadenced  clapping  of  hands  that 
always  accompany  these  functions.  Elsewhere,  grazing  in  the 
now  deserted  fields,  the  noctambulating  hippopotamus  would 
neigh  us  his  serenades. 

Great  fires  cover  the  banks  in  March.  It  is  the  black  man^s 
method  of  clearing  and  manuring  his  fields  on  the  eve  of  seed- 
time. He  destroys  the  tall  grasses  and  other  parasites  by  these 
means,  and  enriches  his  soil  with  their  ashes.  Thus  magnificently 
illuminated,  we  glide  over  the  water  to  the  sound  of  a  great 
crackling  which  is  occasionally  mingled  with  the  cry  of  some  wild 
animal  that  the  flames  have  surprised  in  its  lair. 

In  this  manner  I  wandered  so  much  at  my  own  sweet  will  that 
even  my  Bosos,  expert  as  they  are,  were  obliged  to  confess  them- 
selves bewildered  at  times.  With  all  these  pleasures  spiced  with 
the  apprehension  of  a  sudden  illness  or  unexpected  attack,  and 
sustained  by  the  thought  of  having  some  lines  of  the  world's 
history  at  the  end  of  my  pen  when  Jenne  and  Timbuctoo  should 
be  attained,  am  I  not  right  in  saying  that  the  cruise  of  my 
thatched  yacht  was  a  unique  one  ? 


CHAPTER    III 

THE   VALLEY   OF  THE   NIGER 

THE  ancient  renown  of  Timbuctoo,  its  boasted  commerce,  and 
its  prestige  as  a  rich  and  powerful  metropolis,  warrant  the 
assertion  a  priori  that  the  regions  surrounding  this  city  of  the 
Niger  must  be  remarkably  fertile.  It  could  hardly  have  usurped 
such  a  reputation.  History  affords  no  parallel  of  an  error  con- 
tinuing to  deceive  the  world  through  four  or  five  centuries. 

The  geographer,  sitting  in  his  study  between  a  modern  map 
of  Africa  and  the  works  of  El  Bekri,  Ca  da  Mosto,  De  Baros, 
Leon  the  African,  and  other  travellers,  would  reason  thus  :  With 
sand  to  the  north-east  and  west  of  it  the  huge  market  of 
Timbuctoo  is  situated  on  the  threshold  of  the  desert.  Yet  it 
is  not  with  sand  that  the  wheels  of  such  an  enormous  traffic  are 
greased.  In  order,  therefore,  that  Timbuctoo  should  be  enabled 
to  play  the  part  attributed  to  it,  we  should  expect  to  find  a  rich 
extent  of  territory  in  the  south,  an  isthmus  of  fertility,  as  it 
were,  jutting  into  the  sea  of  sand.  We  should  anticipate  this 
stretch  of  land  to  be  large,  since  it  has  maintained  a  great 
commerce  for  some  centuries,  and  supplied  such  varied  markets 
as  Morocco,  Tuat,  and  Tripoli,  as  well  as  the  various  nomad 
populations  of  the  desert. 

Do  these  fertile  regions  really  possess  the  happy  distinction 


40 


THE    VALLEY    OF    THE    NIGER  41 

of  being  discoverable  by  mere  force  of  logic,  as  certain  stars 
are  by  mathematical  calculation  ? 

The  occupation  of  Timbuctoo  has  made  it  possible  to 
verify  such  surmises  by  opening  up  routes,  accessible  not  only 
to  the  explorer  proper,  who  crosses  the  country  worn  by  priva- 
tion and  at  the  mercy  of  his  guides,  but  available  also  for  the 
traveller  who  lingers  to  gather  complete  information  at  his  ease. 

This  country  lying  to  the  south  of  Timbuctoo  is  the  Sudan, 
otherwise  called  the  Valley  and  the  Buckler  of  the  Niger,  a  vast 
region,  traversed  to  an  extent  of  nearly  2500  miles  by  one  of 
the  largest  rivers  in  the  world. 

Egypt  was  happily  defined  by  Herodotus  as  being  the 
'  present  of  the  Nile."  What  Herodotus  said  of  Egypt  we  might 
with  equal  truth  say  of  the  Sudan. 

The  Arabian  conqueror  Amru,  who  took  possession  of  Egypt 
in  the  seventh  century,  gives  the  following  complete  and  accurate 
description  of  it  in  a  letter  to  his  master  the  Khalif  Omar. 

'  O  Prince  of  the  Faithful !  Picture  unto  thyself  .an  arid 
desert  and  a  fruitful  country,  for  such  is  Egypt.  A  beneficent 
river  flows  majestically  through  its  midst.  The  rise  and  fall  of 
its  waters  are  as  regular  as  the  course  of  the  sun  and  the  moon. 
At  an  appointed  time  all  the  springs  of  the  universe  come  to  pay 
tribute  to  this  king  of  rivers.  They  cause  its  waters  to  swell 
and  leave  their  bed,  covering  the  surface  of  Egypt  with  a  fruitful 
mire,  and  when  the  waters  cease  to  be  necessary  for  the  fertilisation 
of  the  soil,  the  obedient  river  returns  to  the  limits  prescribed  to 
it  by  destiny,  in  order  that  the  treasures  it  has  hidden  in  the 
bosom  of  the  earth  may  be  gathered.  The  people  thus  favoured 
by  Heaven  sow  seeds  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  that  they  may 
be  brought  to  prosperity  by  the  munificence  of  the  Supreme 
Being  who  causes  harvests  to  ripen.  The  most  abundant 


42  TIMBUCTOO 

harvests  are  succeeded  by  sudden  sterility;  and  thus  it  is,  O  Prince 
of  the  Faithful,  that  Egypt  offers  successively  the  images  of  an 
arid  and  sandy  desert,  a  liquid  and  silvery  plain,  a  marsh  of 
black  mire,  a  green,  undulating  meadow,  and  a  field  of  golden 
grain.  Blessed  for  ever  be  the  Creator  of  such  marvels." 

What  the  Nile  has  done  for  Egypt,  the  Niger  has  accom- 
plished for  the  Sudan.  In  the  course  of  a  year  we  witness 
the  same  striking  and  opposed  pictures.  The  cultivation  is  as 
facile  as  that  of  Egypt,  and  is  due  to  the  same  regular  rise  and 
fall  of  the  river.  But  the  Niger  shows  an  even  greater  munifi- 
cence in  its  gifts  than  does  its  brother  of  Eastern  Africa.  For 
thousands  of  years  the  labour  of  man  has  co-operated  with  the 
beneficent  work  of  the  latter,  and  yet,  flowing  imbedded  between 
two  mountain  chains,  it  only  carries  fertility  to  some  few 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  feet;  while  the  Niger,  on  the  other 
hand,  owing  to  its  immense  plains,  dispenses  its  benefits  over 
an  extent  of  more  than  sixty  miles  without  the  intervening  aid 
of  man. 

The  prestige  of  Timbuctoo  in  the  past,  and  its  boasted 
commerce,  are  now  explained  by  finding  it  as  we  do  upon  the 
threshold  of  another  Egypt,  equally  favoured  by  nature,  but 
infinitely  greater  in  extent.  Its  only  disadvantages  consist  in  not 
having  been  developed  by  four  or  five  thousand  years  of  civilisa- 
tion, and  in  not  standing  in  the  doorway  of  Europe  as  does  the 
Valley  of  the  Nile. 

The  Niger  rises  in  the  mountain  chain  which  extends  from  the 
country  of  Sulima  in  the  north  to  Kono  in  the  south,  and  spreads 
to  the  Kissi  country  in  the  east.  Contrary  to  the  generally 
accepted  opinion,  the  range  is  not,  geologically  speaking,  a 
dependency  of  that  Foota  Jallon  upheaval  which  is  considered  the 


44 


TIMBUCTOO 


centre  of  a  great  movement  whose  subordinate  branches  were 
pushed  beyond  the  sources  of  the  Niger.  In  reality,  the  range  of 
the  Niger's  sources,  or  the  Kouranko  chain,  forms  the  true  centre 
of  the  upheaval.  Its  altitudes,  in  the  countries  of  Negaya  and 
Kono,  attain  to  3840  feet  (sources  of  the  Niger),  and  4920  feet  in 

the  south,  while 
the  average  eleva- 
tion of  the  Foota 
Jallon  is  not  more 
than  2625  feet. 

The  principal 
summits  of  the 
Kouranko  range 
are  :  Mount 
Bondi,  Mount 
Ma,MountKeina, 
Mount  Konko- 
Kourawa,  the  two 
Kolas,  the  two 
Soullous,  Mount 
Kokonante 
(sources  of  the 
Niger),  Mount 
Darou ,  the  needles 
of  Kinki,  the  Songoula,  the  Banka,  Fingui,  Soofoa,  Tinki, 
Owaloo,  Kora,  and  the  Toumba  (the  four  last  are  in  the  country 
of  Kono). 

In  the  Kissi  country  two  rivers,  the  Paliko  and  the  Tembi, 
flow  towards  the  north,  pursue  a  parallel  course,  and,  meeting  at 
Laya,  unite  in  one  bed  to  become  the  Niger  or  Joliba.  The  most 
important  of  the  two  rivers  is  the  Tembi,  considered  by  the 


THE  SOURCES   OF  THE   NIGER   TEMBI 


THE    VALLEY    OF    THE    NIGER  45 

natives  as  the  Father  of  Joliba.  It  rises  in  a  little  hill  to  the 
east  of  Mount  Kokonante,  and  not  far  from  the  foot  of  Mount 
Darou.  The  hill  from  which  the  Tembi  flows  is  in  no  way 
remarkable  from  a  topographical  point  of  view.  Bare  at  its 
summit,  it  is  covered  a  little  lower  down  with  a  vegetation  which, 
growing  thicker  as  it  descends  towards  the  waterway  of  the 
valley,  proclaims  the  presence  of  water. 

About  a  hundred  feet  from  the  summit  of  the  hill  is  a  little 
basin,  about  three  feet  in  diameter  and  a  foot  in  depth,  full  of 
clear  water,  and  called  by  the  natives  Tembi  Kuntu,  or  Head  of 
Tembi.  A  hundred  feet  further  down  is  another  and  larger  basin, 
which  is  not  easily  found  on  account  of  the  thick  vegetation,  the 
inextricable  confusion  of  thorny  canes,  trees  thrown  down  by 
storms,  tangles  of  creepers  and  tree  ferns,  in  which  it  is  hidden. 

The  water  of  this  little  creek  flows  through  the  wood,  and 
re-appears  656  feet  lower  down  in  the  valley.  At  this  point  the 
Ternbi  is  a  mere  rivulet ;  875  yards  from  its  source  it  has  become, 
at  the  village  of  Tembi  Kuntu,  a  gentle  stream,  increasing  rapidly 
in  size  and  depth  as  it  flows  towards  the  north.  At  Nelia,  eight 
miles  from  the  source,  it  is  eighty  feet  wide,  and  at  Faranna, 
sixty-two  miles  from  the  source,  it  has  attained  a  breadth  of 
nearly  328  feet. 

The  wood  from  which  the  Tembi  springs  is  reputed  sacred, 
and  is  the  subject  of  innumerable  legends  and  superstitions. 
Access  to  it  is  denied  to  the  profane;  terrible  misfortunes  over- 
take any  one  uttering  a  word  or  touching  anything  there,  and 
warriors  and  all  who  have  shed  blood  die  on  approaching  this 
spot.  Its  waters  are  believed  to  express  the  judgments  of  God. 
If  a  man  is  accused  of  some  crime  which  he  denies  he  is  forced 
to  drink  of  them,  and  if  he  is  guilty  his  sin  is  proved  by  an 
inflation  of  the  stomach,  followed  by  instant  death. 


46  TIMBUCTOO 

The  natives  say  that  in  the  centre  of  the  little  creek  of  Tembi 
is  a  rocky  islet.  This  little  island  is  the  abode  of  the  Spirit  of 
the  Spring,  and  the  mysterious  retreat  of  the  High  Priest  who 
represents  the  deity  to  mortals.  He  takes  up  his  residence  there 
by  plunging  into  the  water  and  approaching  it  invisibly.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend  there  is  a  golden  dwelling  at  the  bottom  of  the 
lake,  and  his  acolytes,  the  minor  prophets,  profess  to  have  heard 


THE   TEMBI    IN    THE   SACRED   WOOD 

the  noise  he  makes  in  opening  and  shutting  the  doors  of  his  super- 
natural home.  High  priests  and  lesser  priests  unite  in  jealously 
guarding  the  approaches  to  the  spring,  and  the  mystery  they 
make  of  it  confers  great  distinction  and  authority  upon  them 
throughout  the  country.  The  neighbouring  kinglets  refer  to 
them  before  undertaking  a  war  or  other  act  of  importance,  and 
the  common  herd  consult  them  on  all  occasions  of  weight. 
The  Spirit  of  the  Spring,  being  eminently  practical,  will 


TIMBUCTOO  47 

only  condescend  to  attend  to  them  through  the  medium  of 
sacrifice. 

These  ceremonies  are  not  very  ferocious,  merely  oxen  being 
offered,  and  not  human  victims,  as  in  neighbouring  Dahomey. 
The  oxen,  however,  must  be  young,  as  the  Spirit  likes  his  meat 
to  be  tender.  The  immolations  do  not  take  place  at  the  spring, 
but  in  the  village  of  Nalia,  where  the  priests  live  with  their 
wives  and  families.  When  the  animal  is  slaughtered  the  best 
portions  are  cut  off,  and  naturally  go  to  the  ministers  of  the 
Spirit  and  their  families.  The  head  and  legs  are  left  adhering 
to  the  skin,  which  is  then  stuffed,  sewn  up,  and  thrown  into  the 
river  as  it  flows  past  the  sacrificial  spot.  A  few  paces  further 
on  the  stream  momentarily  disappears  through  a  subterranean 
passage.  The  stuffed  ox  disappears  with  the  Tembi,  to  reappear 
later  on,  its  head  proudly  erect,  as,  apparently  overflowing  with 
life,  it  rears  and  plunges,  appearing  and  disappearing  with  the 
bubbling  of  the  current.  Every  one  then  retires  satisfied ;  the 
Spirit  of  the  Spring  and  his  ministers  pleased  with  the  prospect 
of  some  first-rate  meals,  and  the  people,  who  had  defrayed  the 
costs,  charmed  by  the  gambols  of  their  ox. 

This  Kissi  region  lies  in  the  ninth  latitude,  where  the  last 
ramifications  of  the  Foota  Jallon  mountains  join  the  first 
buttresses  of  the  Kong  chain.  The  source  of  the  Niger  is  to  be 
found  there,  and  it  is  par  excellence  the  land  of  heavy  rainfalls. 
From  February  to  July  the  water  falls  from  the  skies  in  veritable 
torrents.  The  gentle  slopes  of  the  mountain  ranges  are  chan- 
nelled by  innumerable  cascades,  rivulets,  brooks,  and  rivers,  that 
carry  oft'  the  heavenly  overflow.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  at  Kouroussa,  although  the  river  has  received  only  three 
tributaries  of  importance,  it  has  already  acquired  an  imposing 
bed.  The  further  it  advances,  the  larger  and  more  numerous 


A  WATERFALL   IN   THE  VALLEY   OF  THE   NIGER'S   SOURCE 


50  TIMBUCTOO 

become  the  waters  by  which  it  is  swelled.  These  supplies  cease 
abruptly  above  Bammaku,  and  from  there  to  Diafaraba  the 
river  is  almost  solitary. 

It  is  between  Tembi-Kuntu  and  Diafaraba  that  we  meet 
with  the  first  of  a  homogeneous  series  of  naturally  irrigated 
zones.  The  left  bank  is  narrow,  and  descends  in  a  gentle  slope 
to  the  Niger,  the  Foota  Jallon  range  closely  bordering  and  not 
quitting  it  until  after  Koulikoro.  The  right  bank,  however,  is 
free,  and  forms  a  large  plain,  which  is  splendidly  watered  by  the 
crowd  of  tributaries  that  run  parallel  to  the  great  river. 

The  latter  does  not  squander  its  miracles  on  this  first  zone, 
which  is  already  so  richly  dowered  with  precious  waters  that  its 
co-operation  would  be  superfluous.  These  countries  of  the 
Upper  Niger  are  radiant.  Tropical  vegetation  spreads  over 
them  with  the  utmost  prodigality,  its  orange,  citron,  kola,  and 
banana  trees  delighting  the  eyes  of  the  European. 

The  Niger  is  accumulating  its  forces  as  it  crosses  this  region, 
and  its  inundations  are  unimportant,  scarcely  overflowing  the 
banks  by  half  a  mile.  The  giant  is  reserving  his  strength  that 
he  may  transform  into  opulent  plains  the  immense  stretches  of 
sand  that  await  his  coming  from  here  to  Diafaraba.  The  river 
pauses  for  a  moment  below  Bammaku,  in  front  of  the  rocky 
barrier  of  Sotouba,  in  order  to  gather  up  and  concentrate,  before 
approaching  the  sand,  the  formidable  mass  of  waters  sent  by 
the  heavens  during  the  previous  five  months.  Then  in  the 
plenitude  of  its  strength  it  rushes  on  towards  the  north,  passing 
Nyamina,  Segu,  and  Sansanding  on  its  way. 

Having  cleared  Diafaraba,  it  arrives,  towards  September, 
impetuous  and  swollen,  at  Mopti,  where  it  is  joined  by  a 
monster  tributary,  the  Bani,  with  a  mass  of  waters  as  formidable 
as  its  own.  With  such  a  reinforcement,  the  army  of  waters  has 


THE    VALLEY    OF    THE    NIGER  51 

grown  immense,  infinite.  Its  bed  is  now  too  narrow,  it  stifles 
between  the  banks.  In  front,  behind,  upon  all  sides,  it  seeks 
outlets,  hurling  itself  into  the  least  depression,  and  invading  the 
smallest  passage.  And  now  takes  place  what  I  shall  call  the 
intoxication  of  the  Niger. 

Happy  intoxication !  if  such  it  be.  The  river  flings  itself 
headlong  over  the  entire  low-lying  region  between  Diafaraba 
and  Timbuctoo,  covering  it  and  swamping  it,  until  a  steppe  of 
barren  sand  becomes  one  of  the  most  fertile  spots  in  the 
universe.  It  has  for  centuries  drifted  a  beneficent  vegetable  mud 
into  these  low-lying  countries,  effacing  the  sand  and  trans- 
forming this  region  into  a  granary  of  plenty.  We  find  there 
not  one  delta,  as  in  Egypt,  but  three. 

The  first  is  from  Diafaraba  to  the  approaches  of  Lake  Debo. 
On  its  left  bank,  having  found  two  auspicious  outlets,  the  Niger 
forms  the  pools  of  Diarka  and  Bourgoo.  Its  principal  branch 
runs  in  a  parallel  direction,  and  flows  with  its  two  arms  into  the 
Debo.  Its  waters  are  still  so  abundant,  in  spite  of  this  distri- 
bution of  its  forces,  that  the  three  streams  communicate  with 
one  another  by  means  of  natural  channels.  The  Bani  connects 
itself  with  the  Niger  in  the  same  manner  on  the  right  bank. 

Thus  a  most  thorough  and  complete  system  of  irrigation  is 
formed,  to  which  man  has  not  needed  to  put  his  hand  ;  and 
fertility  is  spread  over  thousands  of  square  miles.  The  rise  and 
fall  of  these  waters  is  as  regular  as  those  of  the  Nile,  and  an 
infinitely  greater  distance  is  covered.  At  Mopti,  for  example, 
you  can  calculate  in  September  ninety  miles  from  east  to  west 
inundated  to  a  depth  of  eight  or  nine  feet. 

The  countries  of  Sana,  Bourgoo,  Massina,  Jenneri,  and  Kunari 
are  situated  in  this  delta. 

The  second  extends  from  Lake  Debo  to  El  Oual  Hadj.     Here 


THE    REGION    OF   THE   THREE    DELTAS 


THE    VALLEY    OF    THE    NIGER  53 

the  Niger  again  divides  into  three  branches.  The  least  important, 
the  Koli-Koli,  rises  south  of  Lake  Debo ;  the  Barra  Issa  or  Black 
Niger,  and  the  Issa  Ber  or  White  Niger,  north  of  the  lake.  The 
Koli-Koli  traverses  Lake  Korienza  and  joins  the  Black  Niger 
at  Sarafara,  the  latter  being  in  its  turn  united  with  the  White 
Niger  near  El  Oual  Hadj. 

Like  the  Bani  and  the  Niger,  like  the  Niger  and  the  pools 
of  Diarka  and  Bourgoo,  these  three  branches  communicate  with 
one  another  by  means  of  winding  channels,  and  we  find  every- 
where the  same  system  of  irrigation  accompanied  by  the  same 
wonderful  fertility.  Nor  is  this  all.  On  the  left  bank,  at  the 
extreme  limit  of  inundation,  the  river  finds  a  new  formula  for  its 
gifts  in  an  admirable  series  of  lakes,  twelve  in  number,  and 
separated  by  chains  of  hills.  The  following  are  the  names  of 
eleven  of  them,  counting  from  south-west  to  north-east :  the 
Kabura,  Tenda,  Sumpi,  Takadji,  Sanaki,  Horo,  Fati,  Goro, 
Dauna,  Tela,  and  the  Faguibina. 

The  floods  fill  these  lakes  by  means  of  gullies  more  or  less 
wide.  Those  of  the  Fati,  Horo,  and  Takadji  are  particularly 
wide  and  open  to  commerce  at  any  time  of  the  year.  Others  are 
clear  for  certain  months  (October  to  March),  and  are  then 
obstructed  by  weeds,  not,  however,  to  the  extent  of  impeding 
the  passage  of  small  canoes.  The  borders  of  these  lakes,  like 
the  banks  of  the  river  they  rival  in  fertility,  are  alternately 
flooded  and  left  bare  for  a  distance  of  some  hundreds  of  yards. 

The  lakes  of  Tela,  Faguibina,  and  Dauna  form  depressions  to 
a  depth  of  thirty-three  feet  below  the  mean  level  of  the  Niger. 
They  are  fed  by  means  of  gullies  and  subterranean  infiltration. 
At  the  height  of  the  floods,  by  simply  scraping  the  ground  with 
your  hand,  you  can  find  water  anywhere  on  the  surface  between 
the  river  and  the  lakes. 


54  TIMBUCTOO 

This  chaplet  of  lakes  forms  an  ingenious  system  of  reservoirs 
for  the  formidable  masses  of  water  discharged  by  the  Niger  and 
Bani  united.  They  return  a  portion  of  their  water  by  means  of 
gullies  and  channels  as  the  floods  subside.  To  the  second  delta 
belong  the  countries  of  Guimbala,  Farimanka,  Aoussa-Kattawal, 
Seno  Krou-ku,  Fituka,  and  Sobundu-Samba. 

The  third  delta  occupies  the  valley  extending  from  El  Oual 
Hadj  to  Khabara,  the  port  of  Timbuctoo.  After  El  Oual  Hadj 
the  river  pursues  a  solitary  course  to  its  mouth. 

This  zone  of  irrigation  is  formed  in  the  following  manner : — 
Numerous  natural  channels  connect  the  Tela  and  Faguibina 
lakes  with  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  the  most  important  of 
them  going  by  the  name  of  the  Pool  of  Gundam.  On  the  right 
bank  a  new  series  of  lakes  and  the  Pools  of  Guaki  and  Kuna 
are  scattered  over  the  north-east  of  the  valley.  Unfortunately 
these  lakes  are  only  known  by  name,  but  according  to  the  latest 
information  they  are  twenty-three  in  number ;  among  them  are 
the  Kangara,  Dinaguira,  Doumba,  Labou,  Hongonta,  Fatta, 
Tahetant,  Tibouraguina,  Do,  Gakora,  Tengueral,  Titoulawina, 
Agwabada,  Garo,  Haribongo,  Kherba,  Tibouraghina,  Dadji, 
Fankora,  and  the  Marmar. 

This  delta  comprises  Kissou,  Killi,  Surayamo,  Aribinda,  and 
Gurma. 

Retarded  thus  by  innumerable  and  remote  digressions,  by 
liberalities  great  and  small,  it  is  not  until  January  that  the 
Niger  reaches  Timbuctoo.  Driven  back  there  by  the  sands 
of  the  Sahara,  it  takes  a  sharp  turn  to  the  east,  the  dunes 
closely  following  it  on  the  left  bank  and  preventing  it  from 
spreading  to  its  full  width.  On  the  right  bank,  however,  the 
country  is  once  more  favourable  for  inundations,  and  the  Niger 
makes  its  fertilising  power  manifest  in  channels  and  lakes  which 


THE    VALLEY    OF    THE    NIGER  55 

irrigate  the  country  by  natural  means  and  give  this  Bamba  region 
a  widespread  reputation  for  wealth. 

The  course  of  the  river  to  the  east  is  now  suddenly  arrested  by 
the  granite  range  of  Taosay.  It  forces  a  narrow  passage  for 
a  while,  and  then,  wearied  with  struggling  against  these  rocky 
masses,  it  makes  straight  for  the  south.  Here  again  the  left 
bank  proves  inhospitable,  while  the  Niger  continues  its  customary 
marvellous  transformations  on  the  right.  Its  progress  is  so 
greatly  retarded  here  that  it  is  not  until  the  middle  of  July  that 
it  arrives  at  Say  with  its  full  complement  of  water,  and  it  finally 
reaches  the  mouth  in  September.  Nearly  a  year  therefore  has 
it  taken  this  immense  mass  of  water  from  the  regions  of  the 
Upper  Niger  to  reach,  considerably  lessened  in  bulk,  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

We  have  now  seen  that  Nature  has  neglected  nothing  to  make 
these  southern  lands  fit  to  maintain  a  commerce  so  important 
as  that  of  Timbuctoo.  Cattle-rearing  and  agriculture  attain  to 
an  extreme  degree  of  perfection,  and  one  fondly  pictures  the 
wealth  that  might  be  drawn  from  a  country  so  marvellously 
constructed. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER 

4  PREPARE  to  receive  cavalry !  .  .  .  Mar-r-r-ch ! '  This  com- 
mand uttered  in  a  ringing  voice,  a  clang  of  arms  and  a  great 
clatter  of  feet,  were  the  first  sounds  I  heard  on  awakening  in 
one  of  the  casemates  of  Fort  Bammaku.  Somewhat  bewildered, 
I  question  my  servant,  who  is  squatting  in  the  corner  waiting 
for  me  to  open  my  eyes.  'It  is  the  soldiers  being  drilled,"  he 
says,  and,  peeping  through  one  of  the  loopholes,  I  see  a  square  of 
negroes,  bristling  with  bayonets. 

Bammaku  is  the  first  fort  upon  our  route  that  contains 
military  apparatus  and  a  garrison.  The  critical  circumstances 
under  which  it  was  built  are  curiously  reflected  in  its  structure. 
It  is  simply  a  great  rectangular  wall  with  none  of  the  ingenuity  of 
modern  construction  about  it ;  but  a  superabundance  of  loopholes 
everywhere — in  the  stables,  the  powder-magazines,  the  rooms, 
and  the  kitchen.  They  had  to  build  quickly  in  1883  and  content 
themselves  with  the  merely  necessary ;  for  Samory  was  still 

56 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER  57 

terrorising  the  country  when  Colonel  Borgnis-Desbordes  planted 
the  first  French  flag  upon  the  Niger.  A  little  troop  of  infantry 
intrenched  in  a  neighbouring  redoubt  held  the  position  while 
the  Chinese  hastily  raised  these  primitive  fortifications ;  the 
hordes  of  blacks  multiplying  the  while,  and  Samory  himself 
coming  to  command  this  last  and  decisive  engagement.  As 
ammunition  was  giving  out,  the  Colonel  and  his  staff  joined  in 
the  melee.  Borgnis-Desbordes,  running  to  repell  the  last  assault, 
said  to  his  companions,  '  Better  keep  the  last  charge  in  your 
revolvers,  for  when  we  have  served  the  rest  it  will  be  time  to 
think  of  ourselves.1 

If  Bammaku  is  not  yet  a  purely  administrative  centre,  like 
Bafoulaba,  Badumba,  and  Kita,  it  is  not  because  this  part  of  the 
country  needs  a  display  of  strength  (it  is  no  less  peaceful  than 
that  through  which  I  have  just  passed),  but  because  it  is  situated 
in  the  very  centre  of  our  colony,  and  forms  an  important  strategic 
point  from  which  it  is  easy  to  send  reinforcements  to  any  part 
that  may  be  momentarily  threatened. 

This  precaution  is  wise.  For  do  we  really  know  how  far  we 
are  masters  of  this  splendid  country,  which  is  many  times  larger 
than  France,  and  contains  from  ten  to  fifteen  millions  of  people  ? 
We  have  a  fleet  of  two  gunboats  and  some  iron  barges  armed 
with  mitrailleuses,  upon  the  Niger,  commanded  by  a  naval  lieutenant 
and  a  midshipman  ;  the  crew  is  black,  as  are  all  the  troops  garrison- 
ing the  interior.  Except  the  servers  of  the  field-pieces,  there  is  not 
a  single  white  private  in  the  country.  Officers  and  petty  officers 
alone  are  Europeans,  and  the  respective  numbers  of  blacks  and 
whites  occupying  the  immense  Sudan  are :  six  hundred  Euro- 
peans, including  officers,  petty  officers,  doctors,  veterinaries, 
officials,  and  telegraph-clerks,  and  four  million  negroes  enrolled 
as  foot-soldiers,  cavalry,  and  transport-bearers. 


58  TIMBUCTOO 

When  we  realise  that  we  have  only  occupied  this  country 
for  the  last  ten  years,  and  that  it  is  three  or  four  times  as  large 
as  Algeria  (which  requires  an  army  of  40,000  men  to  maintain 
it),  we  find  the  necessary  controlling  force  in  the  Sudan  to  be  as 
surprisingly  as  it  is  delightfully  small.1 

The  town  of  Bammaku  is  situated  between  the  fort  and  the 
river,  not  immediately  upon  its  banks  but  at  a  distance  of  a 
quarter  of  a  mile ;  that  is  to  say,  on  the  limits  of  inundation. 
Its  aspect  is  most  charming,  thanks  to  the  initiative  and  intelli- 
gence of  the  officers  who  have  successively  commanded  it.  They 
have  well  taken  to  heart  their  role  of  civilising  medium,  and  have 
made  (between  its  rows  of  white  dwellings  built  of  rammed  clay) 
roads,  which  they  have  bordered  with  trees  that  give  a  most 
welcome  shelter. 

They  have  also  laid  out  great  squares  where  the  superbly 
tall  cheese-tree  spreads  its  parasol-like  foliage.  A  large  build- 
ing shelters  the  native  market,  and  not  far  from  it  are  two  shops 
containing  European  merchandise.  A  negro,  armed  with  an 
old  sabre,  acts  the  part  of  superintendent  of  police  and  looks 
after  the  town  property.  This  Europeanising  does  not  displease 

1  This  is  how  our  conquest  has  been  organised  : — The  Sudan  is  divided  into  regions, 
the  regions  into  circles,  and  these  again  into  posts.  The  first  are  five  in  number. 
The  government  resides  provisionally  in  the  first  region,  that  of  Kayes  (though  logic- 
ally the  centre  of  the  colony  should  be  at  Bammaku).  Its  circles  are  those  of  Nioro, 
Kita,  Bafoulaba,  and  its  posts,  Selibaba  and  Gumbu.  Other  European  centres  are  : 
Medina,  Dinguirai,  Dioubaba,  and  Badumba.  Second,  the  southern  region.  Centre  : 
Bissandugu  (ancient  capital  of  Samory).  Circles  :  Siguiri,  Farannah,  Erimakono, 
Kissidugu.  Posts  :  Kankan,  Beyla,  Kerwana,  Kuroussa.  Third,  the  eastern  region 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  and  to  the  right  across  the  valley  of  the  Niger.  Centre  : 
Bammaku.  Circle  :  Bougouni.  Posts  :  Koulikoro  and  Toulimandio.  Fourth,  the 
north-east  region  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  Centre  :  Segu.  Circles  :  Jenne,  Sokolo, 
Bandiagara.  Posts :  Mopti  and  Gourao  on  Lake  Debo,  headquarters  of  the  flotilla. 
Fifth,  the  northern  region  comprising  the  lakes  of  the  north  valley.  Centre : 
Timbuctoo.  Circles  :  Gundam  and  Sarafara.  Post  :  El  Oual  Hadj.  A  superior 
officer  is  at  the  head  of  each  region  ;  captains  administer  the  circles ;  and  officers  of 
different  grades  command  the  posts. 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER  59 

the  natives  in  the  least.  Every  year  sees  the  town  increase  and 
new  roads  constructed,  while  rapid  strides  are  being  made  towards 
regaining  its  ancient  prosperity,  which  was  destroyed  by  El  Hadj 
Omar  and  Samory  out  of  sheer  envy. 

The  great  encompassing  plain  is  no  less  enchanting  to  loko 
at.  Partly  inundated  and  partly  irrigated  by  numerous  rivulets, 
there  is  no  need  to  dilate  upon  its  obvious  fertility,  and  I  pass 
on  to  speak  at  greater  length  of  the  three  kinds  of  tree  which 
grow  so  abundantly  in  the  fields,  bush,  and  rocky  ledges  of  this 
region. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  three  is  the  karita  or  butter-tree, 
and  is  best  represented  among  our  trees  by  the  pear,  the  similarity 
of  their  leaves  being  remarkable.  The  bark  and  trunk  are  rugged 
like  those  of  the  chestnut-tree.  Its  branches  develop  in  the  form 
of  a  dome,  and  should  attain  to  great  dimensions.  A  fully 
developed  karita  is  unfortunately  a  rare  sight;  for  the  natives 
take  no  care  (in  their  fields  or  elsewhere)  to  preserve  this  tree, 
which  they  have  neither  to  plant  nor  to  cultivate,  and  whose  fruit 
can  always  be  gathered  to  satiety.  I  know  no  tree  in  the  whole 
of  Western  Africa  more  valuable  for  the  services  it  renders  the 
native  or  for  those  it  will  soon  be  called  upon  to  render  the 
European. 

It  first  attracted  my  attention  at  Dion  at  the  close  of  a  day's 
journey  that  had  been  prolonged  until  nightfall.  When  we  finally 
reached  the  village  in  which  we  had  arranged  to  spend  the  night, 
great  was  my  surprise  at  inhaling  an  unmistakable  odour  of 
chocolate.  Some  European  has  forestalled  me,  I  thought,  and 
I  made  inquiries  for  him  among  the  inhabitants.  No,  not  another 
white  man  in  the  place.  Whence  this  delectable  odour,  then  ? 
Guided  by  the  perfume  I  presently  found  a  large  earthen  pot  con- 
fronting me,  in  which  a  dark  brown  mass  was  boiling.  This  was 


60  TIMBUCTOO 

the  karita,  and  they  were  boiling  its  nuts  to  obtain  the  butter 
they  yield,  and  it  was  thence  the  well-known  fumes  escaped. 

This  nut  is  enclosed  in  a  flesh  that  resembles  the  peach  in 
taste,  and  is  made  into  a  sweetmeat  by  the  natives.  The  nut  is 
shelled  and  set  to  dry  and  harden ;  in  this  state  its  red-brown 
colour,  aroma,  and  taste  are  completely  analogous  to  our  cocoa. 
The  Sudanese,  though  not  yet  initiated  into  the  joys  of  chocolate, 
make  a  very  ingenious  use  of  it,  nevertheless.  They  obtain,  by  a 
process  similar  to  that  of  making  cocoa-nut  butter,  a  product  of 
the  first  necessity,  vegetable  butter ;  and  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  Sudan  no  other  fatty  substance  is  used,  the  great  white 
blocks  of  karita  possessing  the  inestimable  advantage  of  never 
going  bad. 

The  European  will  undoubtedly  find  a  still  more  profitable 
use  for  this  tree  later  on,  for  on  incision  it  yields  a  gutta-percha — 
a  product  for  which  many  industries  are  now  anxiously  seeking, 
for  its  supply  has  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of 
demand. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  karita  grows  another  curious 
tree,  the  nata.  After  the  butter-tree  the  flour-tree.  This  flour, 
sold  in  all  the  markets  of  the  region,  is  enclosed  in  large  pods ;  it 
is  of  a  yellow  colour  and  singularly  rich  in  sugar,  so  much  so  that 
I  have  seen  it  used  by  Europeans  in  the  manufacture  of  confec- 
tionery and  pastry. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  say  too  much  about  the  third  tree 
found  in  these  parts,  the  cheese-tree.  Not  satisfied  with  pro- 
viding her  negro  with  butter  and  pastry,  Dame  Nature  has 
benevolently  adorned  the  branches  of  this  tree  with  camenberts 
and  livarots.  This  tree  (called  baga  or  bamanbi  by  the 
natives)  also  produces  capsules,  from  which  very  fine  and  brilliant 
filaments  escape.  So  much  do  they  resemble  the  precious  threads 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER 


61 


THE   ROCKY   BARRIER  AT   SOTOUBA 


of  the  cocoon  that  the  name  of  vegetable  silk  has  been  given 
them.  Nor  is  this  the  only  Sudanese  plant  to  furnish  this 
miracle :  the  follicle  of  a  very  abundant  anemone  is  equally  full  of 
a  lustrous  silk ;  while  in  the  second  delta  of  the  Niger  I  have 
frequently  observed  a  large  plant  growing  to  about  the  height  of 
a  man  and  bearing  a  pretty  mauve  blossom  which  is  furnished  in 
the  same  manner. 

The  principal  articles  of  commerce  sent  by  Bammaku  to 
Timbuctoo  are  gold,  kola-nuts,  karita,  and  arachides.  It  would 
doubtless  send  cereals  and  other  of  its  abundant  products  if  the 
river  permitted  of  direct  relations  being  established  between  the 
two  cities. 

At  a  little  distance  down  the  Niger,  however,  its  bed  is  en- 
cumbered by  the  great  barrier  of  Sotouba,  forming  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  scenes  in  the  Sudan.  I  visited  it  just  at  the  fall  of 
the  waters,  and  found  that  a  formidable  chaos  of  bitumen-coloured 
rocks  had  been  uncovered  on  the  left  bank,  while  a  terribly  swift 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER  63 

and  foaming  rapid  extended  as  far  as  the  eye  could  see  upon  the 
right. 

The  passage  of  Sotouba  is  only  practicable  at  the  height  of 
the  waters  when  the  rocks  are  covered  and  the  river  is  one 
enormous  and  very  dangerous  rapid.  The  current  is  so  swift 
that  a  canoe  from  Bammaku  arrives  at  Toulimandio,  a  distance 
of  twenty-five  miles,  in  three  hours.  At  this  latter  place  the 
course  of  the  river  is  more  normal,  and  we  have  made  a  little 
harbour  from  which  travellers,  bound  for  the  north  of  the  Sudan, 
come  and  go. 

It  has  no  garrison,  but  merely  possesses  a  dwelling  of  vaguely 
European  type,  built  of  rammed  clay  and  thatched  after  the 
fashion  of  the  native  hut.  A  tricolour  flag  waves  from  its  roof, 
and  under  it  live  an  artillery  sergeant  and  a  gunner,  closely  recall- 
ing the  two  sappers  of  Dioubaba ;  only,  instead  of  being  occupied 
with  trains  and  playing  at  station  master,  the  artilleryman  is 
admiral  and  commander  of  the  fleet  of  transport  barges. 

The  two  men  live  surrounded  by  monkeys,  guinea-fowls,  and 
poultry,  and  their  contentment  rivals  that  of  the  comrades  of 
Bakoy.  A  youthful  alligator  supplies  the  place  of  the  hippo- 
potamus, but  does  not  display  the  same  amiable  desire  to  be 
tamed.  He  would  make  a  mouthful  of  the  hand  ill-advised 
enough  to  attempt  a  caress ;  he  has  a  strong  chain  attached  to 
him,  and  is  fastened  up  like  a  dog.  There  is  only  one  thing  that 
troubles  these  sons  of  the  soil :  they  cannot  understand  why 
the  natives  do  not  labour  to  obtain  even  greater  profit  from 
the  rich  extents  of  fertility  at  their  disposal.  '  They  should  send 
the  fools  to  France  to  be  taught  how  to  work,1  is  their  recom- 
mendation. 

Some  ten  miles  south  of  Toulimandio  we  have  established  a 
shipyard  on  a  pretty,  rocky  promontory  of  the  Niger.  Its  name 


2    g  H 

a  a 

K    S5  M 

O    <  Pi 

H    P  < 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER  65 

is  Koulikoro,  and  its  neighbouring  forests  supply  the  wood  from 
which  the  barges  are  concocted.  These  boats  are  something 
between  a  whaler  and  a  canoe  in  shape,  and  officers,  privates, 
travellers,  and  stores  circulate  up  and  down  the  river  upon  them. 
The  director  and  workmen  of  the  shipyard  are  all  natives  of 
Senegal. 

It  is  an  amusingly  primitive  and  exotic  arsenal  that  is  repre- 
sented upon  the  river-bank.  The  workshops  are  leafy  vaults  ;  and 
benches,  with  forges,  lathes,  and  pyramids  of  planks,  lie  scattered 
round  the  feet  of  mighty  trees.  The  forms  of  toiling  carpenters, 
blacksmiths,  and  sawyers  mingle  with  those  of  their  wives  and 
children  washing  and  bathing  in  the  stream.  Horses  and  other 
animals  browse  contentedly  near,  and  the  whole  forms  a  delightful 
babel  of  laughter,  blows  of  the  hammer,  neighing,  saw-grinding, 
chatter,  and  bleating. 

Further  on,  with  Nyamina  and  Sansanding  we  reach  the  cotton 
district.  Large  fields  are  consecrated  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
valuable  plant,  and  it  is  here  those  beautiful  fabrics  known  as 
pagnes  de  Segu  are  made.  They  are  patterned  in  deep  indigo, 
and  are  in  great  request  in  Senegal,  in  the  markets  of  Timbuctoo, 
and  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast,  who  greatly  prefer  them 
to  the  European  textiles. 

Nyamina  reposes  gracefully  at  the  far  end  of  a  little  creek  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Niger.  This  town  is  as  gay  and  animated  as 
possible,  possessing,  not  one,  but  many  markets  in  which  the  pro- 
ducts of  this  rich  country  of  Sarro  are  exchanged.  Not  only  is 
there  no  fort  nor  garrison,  there  is  not  even  a  single  European 
here,  the  government  of  town  and  country  being  in  the  hands  of 
a  native  chief. 

Segu,  on  the  contrary,  distant  two  days'  journey  on  the  right 

E 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER  67 

river-bank,  is  strongly  fortified  ;  partly  in  its  character  of  ancient 
bulwark  of  the  Toucouleur  dominion  and  capital  of  El  Hadj 
Omar,  and  partly  because  it  is  the  stronghold  of  the  central  valley 
of  the  Niger.  Seen  from  the  river  its  appearance  is  very  attractive, 
with  its  massive  gates  and  its  walls  zig-zagging  like  the  folds 
of  a  screen.  At  the  far  end  a  conglomeration  of  points  produces 
the  illusion  of  a  strong  castle  bristling  with  battlements.  This 
edifice  was  the  fantastic  creation  of  the  towrfs  first  governor,  an 


SEGU 


artillery  officer,  and  it  lodges  the  European  staff,  provision  and 
ammunition  stores.  Its  architect  was  inspired  by  the  bizarre  and 
vague  efforts  at  adornment  on  the  palaces  of  the  kings  of  Segu. 
The  ornaments  with  which  they  sought  to  soften  the  high  bare 
walls  which  made  their  palaces  look  like  prisons  were,  it  appears, 
imported  by  masons  from  Jenne.  With  these  models  before  him, 
the  ingenuity  of  the  artilleryman,  combined  with  negraic  masonry, 
resulted  in  a  very  queer  product  indeed.  Seen  close,  it  resembles 
a  porcupine,  or  some  large  cathedral  organ  with  a  multitude  of 
pipes.  Unfortunately  the  sun-dried  bricks  of  which  it  is  built  are 
inconsistency  itself,  and  every  rainy  season  sees  the  pilasters  melt 
away  like  sugar-plums.  Alas !  three  times  over,  this  curiosity 
will  not  live  to  amuse  our  sons. 


68 


TIMBUCTOO 


The  town  is  populous,  busy,  and  lively,  but  its  interior  does 
not  fulfil  the  promise  of  its  outward  show.  It  is  a  pity  that  no 
one  has  taken  the  trouble  to  make  the  vistas  and  squares  that 
give  so  much  charm  to  Bammaku.  The  royal  palace  is  its  only 


SEGU  :   THE  ANCIENT  PALACE  OF  AHMADOU  TRANSFORMED  INTO 
A  FORT  (EXTERIOR) 

object  of  interest,  and  of  that  not  much  more  than  the  walls 
have  been  left  standing.  The  interior  has  been  destroyed 
and  altered  to  suit  our  tastes  and  necessities,  and  it  was 
but  the  carcase  of  Ahmadou^s  (son  of  El  Hadj  Omar)  palace 
that  furnished  the  artilleryman  with  a  model  for  his  amazing 
monument.  As  for  the  abode  of  the  famous  negro  conqueror, 
a  cabbage  plot  grows  where  his  harem  was  wont  to  flaunt  its 
black  beauty,  and  a  post-office  stands  upon  the  site  of  his 
treasury. 

This  post-office  is  the  last  and  most  northern  of  the  fourteen 
scattered  about  the  Sudan.  Hereafter  we  shall  only  find  second- 
hand ones — that  is  to  say,  a  petty  officer  who  ensures  the  departure 


70  TIMBUCTOO 

and  delivery  of  letters  in  every  occupied  town.  Once  a  fortnight 
a  French  mail  arrives  and  departs  timed  to  reach  Dakar  the  day 
before  the  large  steamers  touch  there.  These  mails,  enclosed  in 
waterproof  bags,  cross  the  country  by  means  of  relays  of  porter 


ARRIVAL   OF   THE   COURIER  :    SEGU 


being   carried  in  canoes  on  the  Niger  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five 
miles  a  day. 

In  addition  the  Sudan  is  provided  with  1860  miles  of  telegraph 
lines.  Segu  is  their  northern  limit,  and  it  would  be  tedious  to 
insist  upon  the  value,  from  the  point  of  view  of  security  alone, 
of  these  little  threads  to  a  young  colony.  Not  less  useful  are  they 
as  an  instrument  of  public  information,  a  gazette  ;  a  happy  innova- 
tion for  countries  where  newspapers  only  arrive  some  months  old. 
Twenty  words  from  France  arrive  daily  in  Senegal.  This  despatch, 
consisting  of  a  summary  of  the  day's  events,  is  transmitted  to 
Kayes,  and  from  there  it  is  re-telegraphed  from  office  to  office 
across  the  country.  It  is  communicated  by  letter  to  places  that 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER 


71 


have  no  telegraph.  These  summaries  are  written  out  and  attached 
to  the  doors  of  offices  and  forts  throughout  the  country,  and  by 
their  means  the  colonist  lives  in  touch  from  day  to  day  with 
the  mother-country. 

Sansanding,  twelve  hours  ditsant  by  the  Niger  from  Segu,  is 
situated,  like  Nyamina,  in  a  creek  on  the  left  bank.  There  is  no 
soldier  or  white  man  here  either. 

Besides  protecting  and  governing,  we  instituted  a  new  form  of 
rule  for  the  Sudan.  It  was  initiated  by  Colonel  Archinard,  one  of 
its  most  intelligent  governors. 

Amongst  the  wise  reforms  instituted  in  Senegal  by  Faid- 
herbe,  the  one  that  rendered  most  signal  service  was  the  establish- 
ment of  the  School  of  Hostages  at  St.  Louis.  The  sons  of  kings, 
kinglets,  and  the  great  chiefs  of  Senegambia  are  educated  there 
on  European  lines.  They  are  inoculated  with  modern  culture 


POSTAL  CANOE  ON   THE   NIGER 

and  ideas,  and  are  taught  to  share  the  French  hopes  and  ideals 
for  the  future  of  these  vast  countries  of  the  Sudan. 

Arrived  at  manhood,  the  sons  either  assist  their  fathers  in  a 
government  to  which  they  will  succeed,  or  they  enter  the  Sene- 
galese or  Sudanese  services,  civil  and  military.  Some  are  officers, 


TIMBUCTOO 


and  others  are  utilised  in  the  administration  and  telegraph  offices, 
while  many  fill  the  important  post  of  interpreter. 

Mademba,  son  of  a  chief  of  Walo  (of  considerable  authority 
in  matters  of  religion  and  politics),  was  educated  in  this  manner. 
He  entered  the  telegraphic  department  somewhere  about  1868,  and 
rendered  devoted  service  for  twenty  years  to  the  cause  of  French 
occupation.  He  followed  Colonel  Borgnis-Desbordes  and  Colonel 
Archinard  in  their  respective  expeditions  up  the  Niger;  and  the 
latter,  wishing  to  reward  his  devotion,  created  for  him  a  little  king- 
dom on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  with  Sansanding  as  his  capital. 

This  idea  of  governing  the  negroes  of  the  Sudan  by  a  Senegalese 
negro  educated  in  accordance  with  our  ideas  was  a  lucky  hit.     It 

is  a  living  and  daily  example 
to  these  people,  an  encourage- 
ment to  them  to  receive  the 
education  we  offer.  When  we 
fy'[  remember  with  what  modest 

means  we  occupy  the  Sudan, 
we  recognise  how  inestimable 
this  moral  force  of  education 
must  be. 

When   the   commanders  of 
neighbouring  forts  have  occa- 
ffi  sion    to    collect    provisions   of 

cereals,  recruit   tirailleurs,   as- 

BEARER   OF   AN    URGENT    MESSAGE  i  i 

semble    porters,  or  no   matter 

what,  they  can  rely  upon  Mademba  as  they  would  upon  a 
European.  Any  white  man  passing  through  Sansanding,  what- 
ever his  position  may  be,  receives  the  welcome  of  a  friend.  If  you 
appeal  to  his  assistance,  even  after  only  having  once  seen  him, 
Mademba  will  perform  the  impossible  in  order  to  serve  you. 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER  73 

Although  a  Mussulman  himself,  he  so  appreciates  the  benefits  he 
received  from  a  European  education,  that  he  sends  his  sons  to  the 
Christian  school 
of  St.  Louis,  sub- 
scribes to  our 
papers,  and  keeps 
up  with  the  news 
and  politics  of 
France.  Colonial  ENTRANCE  TO  MADEMBA'S  PALACE 

movement  more  especially  engages  his  attention,  and  he  gives 
it  practical  encouragement  in  his  kingdom.  He  sends  to  Paris 
for  various  seeds,  and  endeavours  to  introduce  new  growths  into 
the  country.  He  has  an  experimental  garden  on  the  banks  of 
the  Niger,  and  I  have  seen  corn,  and  plum  and  peach  trees,  etc., 
trying  to  grow  there.  The  natives  have  noticed  all  this,  and 
respect  him  accordingly.  'Mademba  is  not  a  negro/  they  say, 
4  he  is  a  tou  bab **  (European),  not  meaning  by  this  that  he 
has  renounced  his  race  and  colour,  but  to  express  their  pride  in 
the  fact  that  one  of  their  number  has  raised  himself  to  the  level 
of  those  white  men  whose  culture  is  their  perpetual  astonishment. 
The  Europeans  indorse  this  judgment  and  treat  him  in  every 
way  as  one  of  themselves.  I  need  scarcely  say  that  I  passed 
many  interesting  hours  at  the  court  of  King — or,  as  the  natives 
say,  Fama — Mademba.  A  most  diverting  mixture  of  European 
and  native  customs  obtains  there.  His  house  is  built  in  a 
succession  of  courts  cut  in  battlements,  and  the  whole  is 
enclosed  with  high  walls  after  the  fashion  of  native  palaces. 
It  is  at  one  and  the  same  time  a  farm,  barracks,  country  house, 
and  royal  dwelling,  just  like  the  kingly  palaces  of  Homer.  In 
the  first  court  you  pass  through  groups  of  horses,  women, 
sheep,  children,  and  ducks  and  hens ;  in  the  second,  clusters  of 

F 


74  TIMBUCTOO 

servants,  armed  or  otherwise,  are  measuring  rice  and  millet  seed, 
or  selling  barrels  of  salt,  tobacco,  and  kola-nuts.  In  Mademba's 
own  apartments,  amongst  the  skins  spread  about  on  the  floor 
for  the  accommodation  of  a  native  audience,  were  comfortable 
arm-chairs,  tables,  books,  pen  and  ink,  lamps  and  candlesticks, 
a  thousand  objects  trifling  in  themselves  but  interesting  enough 
when  found  under  a  negro's  roof. 

Mademba  has  retained  the  religion  of  his  father,  and  most 
of  his  subjects  practise  Islamism.  Although  discarding  some  of 
its  usages,  he  has  preferred  to  preserve  the  custom  of  polygamy. 

Towards  evening,  as  the  mares  and  colts  were  brought  in 
from  the  fields  under  his  vigilant  eyes,  I  sat  beside  him  with  my 

glass  of  water 
perfumed  with 
some  drops  of 
absinthe  ;  and 
melancholy  were 

A   COURTYARD    IN    MADEMBA'S    PALACE 

the     glances    he 

cast  upon  his  own  '  undefiled  tumbler.1  His  retinue  was 
numerous,  and  he  had  too  much  tact  to  scandalise  them  by 
drinking  his  water  anything  but  neat,  nor  did  he  neglect 
to  prostrate  himself  in  the  prayer  that  every  good  Mussulman 
must  say  at  sunset.  But  no  sooner  did  we  find  ourselves 
tete-a-tete  at  dinner,  waited  on  by  familiar  servants  (Senegalese 
like  their  master),  than  red  wine  and  champagne  from  the 
royal  cellars  filled  both  our  tumblers,  nor  was  a  final  glass  of 
Chartreuse  forgotten.  The  repast  was  served  in  European 
fashion,  plates  and  knives  being  changed  with  each  course,  a 
little  luxury  I  had  not  always  met  with  in  the  Sudan  at  the 
tables  of  white  people.  In  contrast  to  all  this,  the  wardrobe 
of  the  king  retained  its  local  colour.  He  wore  a  red  fez  and 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER 


75 


a  long  mantle  (like  the  priestly  cope),  dark  green  in  colour  and 
heavily  embroidered  in  gold.  He  wore,  moreover,  various  decora- 
tions, among  which  I  noticed  that  of  the  legion  of  honour.  I 
will  not  deny  that 
he  had  something 
of  the  stage  mon- 
arch about  him  and 
might  have  come 
out  of  a  theatrical 
wardrobe-shop,  but 
his  appearance  was 
in  no  way  inhar- 
monious ;  and  how 
ridiculous  he  would 
have  looked  in 
frock-coat  and  top- 
hat ! 

Having  scoured 
the  country  for  so 
many  years,  and 
being  by  nature  an 
observer  gifted  with 
a  keen  judgment, 
Mademba  was  a 
perfect  treasure- 
house  of  information.  He  had  a  complete  knowledge  of  native 
idioms,  and  could  express  himself  in  French  with  ease.  He  gave 
me  an  account  of  the  ancient  splendour  of  Sansanding,  and  entered 
into  the  reasons  of  its  decadence,  recounted  his  heroic  resistance 
against  the  Toucouleurs,  and  showed  me  how  he  was  slowly 
rebuilding  his  kingdom.  The  explanation  of  many  things  came 


FAMA   MADEMBA 


76  TIMBUCTOO 

to  me  in  this  way  :  the  speedy  submission  of  the  Sudan,  and,  above 
all,  its  rapid  pacification,  and  the  security  of  completely  isolated 
Europeans,  like  the  two  artillerymen  at  Toulimandio. 

Mademba  sent  for  a  chief  of  the  town  in  order  that  I  might 
receive  enlightenment  at  the  fountain-head.  He  was  an  old 
man,  Bossissa  by  name,  withered  and  whitened  by  age,  whose 
energies  had  all  ebbed  into  his  eyes.  His  grandfather  was  the 
most  powerful  shipowner  in  Sansanding  a  hundred  years  ago  ; 
the  greater  part  of  the  canoes  trading  with  Timbuctoo  were  his, 
and  his  slaves  were  to  be  counted  by  hundreds.  Mungo  Park 
was  his  guest  in  1805,  and  his  descendants  have  preserved 
more  than  one  reminiscence  of  the  hardy  explorer  which  shall  be 
recounted  later  on. 

4  Thou  hast  seen  our  city  in  ruins,"  said  Bossissa ;  '  its  houses 
deserted  and  falling  in  pieces.  Thou  hast  beheld  our  most  un- 
happy Mosque.  And  when  thou  shalt  be  returned  into  the 
country  of  thy  fathers,  thou  shalt  say :  I  have  seen  Sansancling, 
and  it  is  a  city  in  ruins,  a  city  of  nothingness.  But  yet  thou 
hast  not  seen  our  city,  neither  has  the  Fama  beheld  it.  This 
beard  and  these  white  hairs  alone  have  seen  it.  And  at  that 
time  the  city  was  cheerful  and  well  built,  containing  many 
markets.  The  people  were  full  of  contentment,  and  were 
apparelled  in  the  fine  garments  and  rich  clothing  of  Arabia 
which  were  brought  by  our  canoes  from  Timbuctoo,  together 
with  many  things  both  beautiful  and  pleasant.  All  this  suffered 
sudden  change  forty  years  ago.  It  was  the  will  of  God  !  Men 
came  from  the  south  hungered  and  thirsting  for  blood,  as  the 
hyena  comes  seeking  corpses.  El  Hadj  Omar  was  at  their  head. 
From  the  west  he  brought  them,  saying  unto  them  :  "  The  Djoliba 
takes  its  source  in  Mecca.  To  look  upon  it  is  to  make  a 
pilgrimage  unto  the  Holy  City.  All  who  bathe  in  it  shall  be 


THE    TOWNS    OF    THE    NIGER 


77 


received  in  Paradise."  We  were  good  Mussulmans  here,  but  they 
made  war  against  us  for  the  sake  of  our  wealth.  We  fought 
long,  and  conquered  many  times,  but  our  city  was  taken  from  us 
and  set  in  ruins.  Our  people  left  their  country.  My  friends 
wished  me  to  depart  also,  but  I  made  answer,  "  I  will  rather 


m  s 


SANSANDING  : 
.CORNER   OF 
THE    MARKET 


die  where  my  father  died."  A  life  of  sadness  began.  The 
Toucouleurs  destroyed  and  pillaged ;  many  of  the  inhabitants 
had  nothing  left  to  them  but  their  two  ears.  The  fields  were 
no  longer  cultivated.  The  country  returned  to  the  bush,  and 
wild  animals  peopled  it.  Hyaenas  came  to  'our  very  doors  and 


78  TIMBUCTOO 

carried  away  our  children  in  the  twilight.  Then  the  Frenchmen 
came,  and  Segu  was  destroyed,  and  the  Toucouleurs  were  swept 
away,  and  joy  returned  to  the  country.  Peace  reigns  among 
us ;  he  who  does  evil  is  of  a  certainty  punished.  Now  that  the 
harvest  is  no  longer  stolen,  the  fields  are  once  more  cultivated. 
We  can  travel  without  fear;  a  child,  knowing  its  way,  may 
walk  alone  along  the  roads.  Merchants  sleep  in  safety  in  the 
bush  far  from  all  habitations ;  while,  formerly,  we  did  not  dare 
to  go  beyond  the  town.  When  we  met  others  stronger  than 
ourselves,  they  seized  us  and  made  us  their  slaves.  The  weak 
village  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  powerful.  But  to-day  all  are 
equal  and  contented,  and  one  may  not  do  wrong  unto  another. 

'  It  is  to  the  white  man  that  we  owe  this  ;  and  dost  thou  still 
ask  why  we  are  satisfied  with  their  presence  and  wherefore  we 
rejoice  in  it?  Dost  thou  not  now  understand  why  the  country 
submits  unto  thee  and  is  peaceful  ?' 


CHAPTER    V 

JENNE 

AT  the  village  of  Kouakoru  we  abandoned  the  Niger  for  one  of 
those  natural  channels  which  carry  fertility  afar  by  their  floods. 

About  twelve  hours  after  we  had  left  the  main  stream,  to  my 
sudden  astonishment,  the  Bosos  in  the  bow  abruptly  ceased  plying 
their  long  bamboo  poles.  Sheltered  as  I  was  under  my  thatched 
hollow,  the  horizon  was  completely  hidden  from  me,  and  I  could 
see  nothing  but  water  and  raised  banks.  Unable  to  understand 
their  sudden  inaction,  I  prepared  to  blow  them  up.  They  turned 
at  my  appeal  in  open-mouthed  surprise,  silently  pointing  to 
some  object  that  was  invisible  to  me ;  then,  with  voices  barely 
audible  from  emotion,  they  murmured,  '  Jenne  ! '  They  were 
overwhelmed  by  the  sight  of  an  unknown  town  ;  they,  who  knew 
great  cities  like  Segu,  Nyamina,  and  Sansanding  !  Here  was 
something  that  I  had  never  seen  before,  either,  and  shall  never 
see  again,  namely,  a  negro  surprised  and  affected,  not  by  some 


European  invention,  but  by  a  spectacle  of  his  own  country.  I 
hastened  forward,  and  stood  astonished  in  my  turn ;  for  the  first 
time  in  these  regions  I  was  astounded  by  the  work  of  man. 

Curious  and  beautiful  sights  had  not  been  wanting  on  my 
journey,  but  there  was  always  something  lacking  to  the  eye  and 
mind  of  a  cultivated  man,  some  trace  of  civilisation  that  should 
evoke  the  genius  of  humanity;  for,  in  spite  of  all  that  has  been 
said  about  the  mutilations  and  sacrileges  to  which  man  has 
subjected  the  great  works  of  nature,  one  must  confess  to  find- 
ing these  great  works  somewhat  incomplete  when  one  has  seen 
nothing  else  for  a  long  time.  The  valley  of  the  Loire,  clothed 
solely  in  its  own  virgin  robe,  is  a  beautiful  sight,  but  set  with 
those  precious  stones  called  Amboise,  Tours,  Chambord,  Chenon- 
ceau,x,  it  becomes  marvellous. 

Jenne  is  the  jewel  of  the  valley  of  the  Niger. 

Here  is  the  picture  engraved  upon  my  memory  as  I  sat 
perched  in  the  bow  among  my  Bosos.  A  vast  plain,  infinitely 
flat,  without  a  touch  of  relief ;  no  villages  nor  any  other  sign  of 
humanity,  only  now  and  again  some  trees  at  long  intervals, 


si 


TIMBUCTOO 


showing  as  dark  spots  upon  the  yellow-green  expanse.  In  the 
very  midst  of  this  solitude  is  a  circle  of  water,  and  within  it, 
rising  victorious  (like  the  summit  of  the  palm-tree  amidst  the 


sands  of  the  desert),  is  reared  a  long  mass  of  high  and  regular 
walls,  erected  on  mounds  as  high,  and  nearly  as  steep,  as  them- 
selves. A  forest  of  projections  crowns  them  with  terraced  roofs, 
palms,  gable-ends,  stairs,  and  dome-like  trees ;  a  whole  smiling 
life  salutes  me  from  the  height  of  this  little  island. 

It  is  sunset,  and  the  violent  contrast  of  tropical  light  and 
shade  intensifies  the  effect.  It  is  an  impressive  scene  at  this 
hour,  and  fully  justifies  the  emotion  of  my  Bosos.  The  high 
mass  of  the  town  is  dark  against  the  sky  and  the  bare  immensity 
of  the  plain  that  flames  right  and  left  of  it ;  and  Jenne  stands 
out  without  transition  from  the  brilliance  of  land  and  sky.  It 
seems  as  if  all  there  was  of  life  had  sought  refuge  on  this 
mountain  isle  which  rises  protectingly  and  majestically  from  the 
distance. 
,  As  my  boat  approaches  by  the  channel  that  branches  at 


JENNE  83 

right  angles  towards  the  heart  of  the  town,  the  banks  and  walls 
of  the  city  emerge  in  greater  proportions  from  the  encircling 
water.  At  their  feet  I  can  distinguish  a  harbour  filled  with  large 
boats  that  have  nothing  in  common  with  the  accustomed  pirogue. 
They  are  large  and  strange  in  form,  like  the  city  that  shelters 
them. 

When  I  have  climbed  the  banks  and  entered  the  walls,  my 
surprise  takes  a  definite  form,  and  I  am  completely  bewildered  and 
thrown  out  of  reckoning  by  the  novelty  and  strangeness  of  the 
town^s  interior.  Surely  the  angel  of  Habakkuk  has  suddenly 
transported  me  a  thousand  leagues  away  from  the  Sudan.  For 
it  is  not  in  the  heart  of  a  country  of  eternally  similar  huts 
(childish  in  their  simplicity  and  confusion)  that  I  should  look  to 
find  a  real  town.  Yes,  a  real  town  in  the  European  sense  of  the 


JENNE  :    A   CORNER   OF  THE  TOWN 

word ;  not  one  of  those  disorderly  conglomerations  of  dwellings 
which  we  call  towns  in  this  country.  Here  are  true  houses ;  not 
primitive  shelters  crowned  with  roofs  that  are  either  flat  or  in  the 


84  TIMBUCTOO 

shape  of  an  inverted  funnel.  Streets  too ;  not  seed-plots  of 
buildings  amongst  which  one  wanders  by  paths  that  serpentine 
more  than  the  most  serpentining  serpent. 

The  idea  suddenly  occurs  to  me,  perhaps  this  is  Timbuctoo 
after  all.  That  would  explain  everything.  But  it  is  impossible ; 
the  Bosos  say  we  are  still  twelve  days'  journey  distant  from  there. 

What  is  this  town,  then,  with  its  wide,  straight  roads,  its 
houses  of  two  stories  (some  with  a  sketch  of  a  third)  built  in  a 
style  that  instantly  arrests  the  eye  ?  I  am  completely  bewildered 
by  an  apparition  so  absolutely  unexpected  in  the  midst  of  a 
barbarous  country.  Where  did  this  gathering  of  unknown  life 
come  from  ?  What  is  this  civilisation,  sufficiently  assured  to 


HOUSE   IN  JENNE 


possess  a  manner  and  style  of  its  own  ?  My  thoughts  naturally 
turn  to  the  culture  of  the  Khalifs  :  the  Arabian  countries  are 
those  nearest  to  the  valley  of  the  Niger,  and  Islamism  is  diffused 


JENNE 


85 


among  them.  But  logically  a  creed  should  be  accompanied  by  its 
art,  and  there  is  nothing  Arabic  in  this  style.  There  is  no  trace 
in  any  of  the  houses,  old  or  new,  of  the  cupola  which  is  such  a 


A   STREET    IN    JENNE 


characteristic  commonplace  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Algeria.  These 
buildings  have  as  little  in  common  with  the  airy  palaces  of  Cairo 
and  Damascus  as  they  have  with  the  delicate  and  complicated 
structures  of  Cordova,  Granada,  or  Seville.  This  style  is  not 
Byzantine,  Roman,  nor  Greek  ;  still  less  is  it  Gothic  or  Western. 
All  traces  of  European  civilisation  cease  between  the  coast  and 
the  Niger. 


86 


TIMBUCTOO 


At  last  I  recall  these  majestically  solid  forms ;  and  the  memory 
is  wafted  to  me  from  the  other  extremity  of  Africa.  Their 
prototypes  rise  upon  the  banks  of  another  great  river,  but  no  life 
is  associated  with  their  image.  They  are  dead  cities,  or 
rather  cities  of  the  dead  ;  for  it  is  in  the  lifeless  towns  of  the 
Pharaohs  and  their  hypogeums,  it  is  in  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Egypt  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  that  I  have  witnessed  this  art 
before. 


HOUSE   IN  JENNE 

How  came  it  here  across  the  far-off  centuries  ?  How  is  it 
it  adorns  a  living  town  to-day  ?  What  is  this  hitherto  unnoticed 
Egyptian  colony  ? 

The  key  to  this  enigma  must  be  found,  and  I  interrupted  my 
journey,  firmly  resolved  not  to  resume  it  before  I  had  unravelled 
the  mystery.  I  succeeded  in  fathoming  the  riddle  by  means  of 
long  talks  with  the  chiefs,  notabilities,  and  marabuts  (learned 
men  and  Mussulman  priests)  of  the  town.  Arabic  documents 


JENNE 


87 


supplemented  oral  traditions,  and,  above  all,  I  had  the  good 
fortune  to  find  a  complete  copy  of  the  Tarik  e*  Soudan  (long 
coveted  by  Orientalists),  the  great  chronicle  of  the  countries  of 
the  Niger.  I  completed  and  elucidated  many  of  its  pages  by 


A   STREET    IN  JENNE 


means  of  the  narratives  transmitted  from  father  to  son  ;  and, 
little  by  little,  the  mystery  unfolded.  In  the  next  chapter  I 
shall  show  how  the  beneficent  influence  of  Egypt,  mother  of  all 
our  western  civilisation,  penetrated  the  heart  of  the  negro 


88 


TIMBUCTOO 


country ;  and  by  what  means  a  reflection  of  its  culture  spread 
and  survived  unto  our  day,  containing  in  its  afterglow  all  the 
glory  and  vivid  charm  of  the  tropical  twilight. 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE    SONGHOIS 

IN  travelling  from  the  coast  the  European  passes  through  suc- 
cessive native  tribes  of  Western  Africa:  Cereres,  Oualofs, 
Khassonkas,  Soussons  and  Bambaras,  etc.,  all  more  or  less 
thick-lipped,  woolly-headed,  flat-nosed,  and  barbarous,  and  all 
equally  well  known  to  the  ethnographer. 

But  arrived  at  Jenne  the  traveller  finds  himself  face  to  face 
with  an  entirely  new  ethnographical  entity,  namely,  the  Songhois. 
Most  Europeans  miscall  them  the  Sonrhais,  but  the  natives  refuse 
to  recognise  the  word  disfigured  in  this  fashion.  During  the 
whole  forty  years  in  which  the  interior  of  Africa  has  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  world,  the  name  has  only  appeared  before 
us  once.  Among  ancient  geographers  Leon  the  African  alone 
has  mentioned  them,  and  that  in  a  paragraph  of — two 
lines !  Among  moderns,  the  famous  German  traveller  Barth 
mentions  them  at  greater  length,  but  all  his  remarks  are 
wrongly  based,  for  he  reckons  the  Songhois  among  the  abori- 
ginals of  the  Sudan,  and  places  their  cradle  between  Tindirma 
and  the  Dira,  to  the  south-west  of  Timbuctoo.  Quite  other  is 
the  tradition  of  the  Songhois  themselves.  They  invariably  told 
me  that  they  did  not  originate  in  the  countries  of  the  Niger, 
and  when  questioned  concerning  the  home  of  their  fathers  they 
all  gave  the  same  reply.  The  right  arm  of  the  human  docu- 


90  TIMBUCTOO 

ment  was  raised,  flinging  back  the  numerous  white  draperies  that 
serve  as  clothing,  and  a  black  hand  pointed  unhesitatingly  in 
the  direction  of  the  purple  dawn.  It  was  their  unvarying  response 
in  Jenne  or  elsewhere,  and  it  was  never  the  west,  where  Tin- 
dirma  and  Dira  lie,  that  they  indicated,  but  always  the  east. 
Once  again  was  that  great  law  of  the  migrations  of  peoples  con- 
firmed, which  draws  the  nations  from  the  land  of  the  rising  to 
that  of  the  setting  sun. 

After  the  human  documents  I  consulted  the  written,  and 
among  all  the  historical  manuscripts  collected  in  my  travels  the 
only  one  to  refer  to  the  origin  of  the  Songhois  is  the  Tarik. 

It  must  be  attentively  read,  too,  for  its  most  precious  indi- 
cations are  very  concisely  enclosed.  '  The  first  king  of  the 
Songhois,1  it  says,  '  was  called  Dialliaman.  His  name  comes 
from  the  Arabian  Dm  mm  al  Jemen,  signifying  "  He  is  come  from 
Yemen."  Dialliaman,1  the  narrative  continues,  '  quitted  Yemen 
in  company  with  his  brother.  They  travelled  through  the  country 
of  God  until  destiny  brought  them  to  the  land  of  Kokia. 

'  Now  Kokia  was  a  town  of  the  Songhois  people  situated  on 
the  banks  of  a  river,  and  was  very  ancient.  It  existed  in  the 
time  of  the  Pharaohs,  and  it  is  said  that  one  of  them,  during 
his  dispute  with  Moses,  sent  thither  for  the  magician  whom  he 
opposed  to  the  Prophet. 

'  The  two  brothers  reached  the  town  in  such  a  terrible  state 
of  distress  that  their  appearance  was  scarcely  human  ;  their  skins 
were  cracked  by  the  heat  and  dust  of  the  desert,  and  they  were 
almost  naked.  The  inhabitants  questioned  them  concerning  the 
country  of  their  origin,  and  their  names  have  been  forgotten  in 
the  surname  with  which  their  reply  provided  them,  "  Dia  min  al 
Jemen  " — "  Come  from  Yemen."  And  Dialliaman  the  elder  settled 
in  Kokia.  Now  the  god  of  the  Songhois  was  a  fish  who  appeared 


THE    SONGHOIS  91 

to  them  from  the  water  at  certain  periods,  wearing  a  golden 
ring  in  his  nose;  and  the  people  gathered  together  and  wor- 
shipped the  fish,  receiving  its  commands  and  prohibitions  and 
obeying  its  oracles. 

'  Perceiving  their  error,  Dialliaman  hid  in  his  heart  a  resolution 
to  kill  the  false  deity,  and  God  assisted  him  in  his  design. 

'  One  day  he  pierced  the  fish  with  a  lance  in  the  presence  of 
the  people  and  killed  it.  Then  the  people  proclaimed  Dialliaman 
king.1 

We  thus  learn  that  the  Songhois  possessed,  at  a  time  which 
we  will  determine  later,  a  very  ancient  town  called  Kokia  that 
was  situated  near  a  river.  Now  where  was  this  town  ?  Barth 
sought  for  it  on  his  journey  from  Lake  Chad  to  the  Niger, 
and  placed  it  upon  the  banks  of  the  Eastern  Niger,  though  he 
would  assuredly  never  have  found  it  there. 

We  will  now  appeal  to  oral  tradition.  With  the  Tarik  in 
my  hand  I  questioned  the  Songhois  concerning  the  whereabouts 
of  this  city  of  Kokia.  '  The  city  of  Kokia  was  far,  very  far  away 
in  the  east,  beyond  Gao,'  was  their  unanimous  reply ;  and  upon 
two  occasions  the  marabuts  added,  '  It  was  a  town  in  the  country 
of  Misr.1  Now  in  the  Sudan  the  country  of  Misr  means  Egypt, 
the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  the  name  comes  from  Misra,  signify- 
ing Cairo. 

What  river  do  we  find  in  the  map  east  of  Gao  ?  None,  large 
or  small,  but  the  Nile;  and  it  is  in  Egypt  alone  that  Kokia, 
4  situated  near  a  great  river,1  could  have  existed.  Moreover,  this 
will  explain  why  the  author  said,  to  indicate  the  great  antiquity 
of  the  town,  'it  already  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,' 
and  that  'one  of  them  sent  thither  for  magicians  to  defeat 
Moses.1  It  would  probably  be  a  neighbouring  and  vassal  country 
to  which  they  would  apply  for  them. 


92  TIMBUCTOO 

Again,  Yemen  is  not  far  from  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  the 
journey  of  Dialliaman  from  there  to  Kokia1  is  quite  plausible. 
The  passage  of  the  desert  that  separates  the  Nile  from  the  Red 
Sea  would  amply  explain  the  condition  in  which  he  is  depicted 
to  have  arrived. 

It  now  remains  to  be  proved  at   what  period  and  in  what 


l\ 


HOUSES   IN  JENNE 


manner  the  Songhois  passed  from  the  shores  of  the  Nile  to  those 
of  the  Niger.  The  reconstruction  of  their  exodus  is,  unfortunately., 
not  so  simple  as  the  demonstration  of  their  origin,  but  the  follow- 
ing version  seems  to  be  the  most  probable. 

1  It  would  probably  be  necessary,  in  order  to  identify  Kokia  with  a  town  of  the 
Nile  valley,  to  find  one  built  upon  an  island  like  the  two  principal  Songhois  towns, 
Jenne  and  Gao.  The  Tarik  mentions  a  town  of  the  same  name  existing  in  the  six- 
teenth century  south  of  Gao,  but  it  can  have  no  connection  with  the  Kokia  at  present 
under  discussion.  The  name  was  probably  given  to  it  by  the  Songhois  in  memory 
of  their  first  home  ;  if  indeed  the  town  really  had  this  name,  and  it  is  not  an  error 
of  the  copyists. 


THE    SONGHOIS  93 

The  emigrations  must  have  begun  towards  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century,  for  Jenne  was  founded  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  after  the  Hegira  (about  765  of  our  era),  and  Jenne  is  the 
extreme  western  point  of  their  invasion.  From  a  hundred  to  a 
hundred  and  twenty  years  would  be  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  include  the  years  of  wandering  and  those  of  settlement  and 
occupation  in  the  Songhoi  countries. 

The  tranquillity  of  Egypt  (which  had  lasted  since  the  Roman 
conquest)  was  rudely  disturbed  in  the  seventh  century  by  the 
lieutenants  of  the  first  Khalifs ;  and  the  country  received  a  shock 
that  would  fully  justify  such  an  exodus.  The  conquerors  were 
dazzled  by  the  richness  of  these  territories,  as  the  letter  sent  by 
Amru  to  the  Khalif  Omar  amply  proves.  It  was  a  magnificent 
quarry  to  the  starveling  Arab,  and  the  distress  of  the  vanquished 
must  have  been  in  proportion  to  the  enthusiasm  of  the  conquerors. 
The  Lower,  Upper,  and  Middle  Egypts  were  all  overrun  towards 
the  year  640.  Possibly  the  Songhois  suffered  more  than  others 
from  this  invasion.  Perhaps  they  refused  to  receive  Islamism. 
My  learned  friends,  the  marabuts,  being  the  official  representa- 
tives of  Mohammedanism,  would  naturally  not  have  admitted  this 
reason,  and  the  historical  manuscripts  are  dumb  upon  the  subject. 
Their  compilers  of  three  centuries  ago  were  likewise  marabuts, 
and  the  silence  of  both  is  very  likely  to  have  been  actuated  by 
the  same  motive.  In  any  case,  the  habitual  methods  of  the 
conquering  Arabs,  their  brutality  and  cupidity,  would  in  them- 
selves sufficiently  account  for  the  flight  of  a  people  as  peaceful 
and  industrious  as  the  Songhois  have  remained  to  this  day. 

Was  Dialliaman  the  promoter  and  leader  of  this  emigration  ? 
The  character  would  harmonise  with  the  picture  the  Tarik  has 
drawn  of  the  adventurer  who  raised  himself  to  the  throne  of  a 
country  he  had  entered  naked  and  hungry.  His  native  land  was 


TIMBUCTOO 


Yemen,  the  recent  birthplace  and  centre  of  the  Mohammedan 
religion.  He  may  have  quarrelled  with  the  early  disciples  of  the 
Prophet,  or  he  may  have  quitted  Arabia  in  order  to  escape  the 
violence  of  their  propaganda.  Finding  himself  once  more  face 
to  face  with  the  fanatics  in  the  country  of  his  adoption,  he 
would  naturally  resolve  upon  a  new  exile  to  more  remote 
countries,  and  would  depart,  accompanied  not  merely  by  his 
brother,  but  leading  a  whole  people  with  him. 

However  that  may  be,  Dialliaman,  the  intrepid  traveller  and 
adventurer  that  the  chronicle  shows  him  to  be — Dialliaman,  the 
true  Arab  who  changes  his  country  as  easily  as  his  coat, — was  in 
every  way  fitted  to  be  the  leader  of  a  people  driven  by  cruel 
conquest  to  seek  a  new  home  in  a  far-off  land.  The  route  taken 


MAP   OF  THE   SONGHOI    EMIGRATION 

by  the  emigrants,  keeping  south  of  the  Libyan  desert,  passing 
by  Agades  and  the  north  of  Lake  Chad,  would  meet  the  Niger 
somewhere  near  Gao.  They  would  naturally  follow  the  outskirts 
of  the  desert,  as  the  line  of  less  dense  population  would  be  that 
least  likely  to  impede  their  progress.  In  this  manner  they  would 


THE    SONGHOIS  95 

reach  the  Niger,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  tract  of  land  to  be 
covered,  in  a  comparatively  short  time.  Several  details  favour 
this  theory.  A  language  similar  to  that  of  the  Songhois  is 
spoken  at  Agades,  the  people  bordering  the  desert  between  the 
Chad  and  the  Niger  are  also  Songhoi ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  many  more  analogous  ethnographical  and  linguistic  traits 
will  be  found  to  exist  when  the  countries  lying  between  Lake 
Chad  and  the  Nile  are  better  known, 

Finally,  in  the  country  of  Bourrousu,  near  the  city  of  Gao,1 
local  tradition  preserves  the  arrival  in  these  parts  of  an  Egyptian 
Pharaoh,  who  is  probably  none  other  than  Dialliaman,  or  the 
leader  of  the  Songhoi  emigration. 

Before  tracing  the  development  of  this  new  country  of 
the  Songhois,  I  will  enforce  the  arguments  in  favour  of  their 
Egyptian  origin  by  others  no  less  decisive.  The  great  name  of 
Barth,  with  whom  I  am  in  opposition,  seems  to  compel  this 
digression. 

The  narratives  of  the  famous  traveller  serve  to  confirm  these 
very  suppositions,  for  he  is  continually  finding  Egyptian  traces 
in  the  Songhoi  countries  and  in  their  countries  alone.  He  observes, 
in  fact,  that  '  the  Songhois  seemed  to  have  received  their  civilisa- 
tion from  Egypt  and  to  have  maintained  very  close  relations 
with  her,  as  many  very  interesting  details  show."  After  that, 
what  would  not  his  conclusions  have  been  if  he  had  visited  Jenne 
itself  and  seen  the  character  of  her  architecture ;  or  if  he  had 
gained  his  facts  from  the  intelligence  and  science  of  the  Songhois 
themselves  instead  of  relying  upon  the  information  of  the  Kountas, 
his  hosts  at  Timbuctoo,  who  were  strangers  of  comparatively 
recent  date  in  the  country  ? 

He  recognised  the  influence  of  Egypt,  but  not  in  its  direct 

1  Gao  is  also  called  Kou-Kou,  Gogo,  Garo,  and  Gago. 


96  TIMBUCTOO 

relation,  and  he  believed  its  civilisation  had  been  received  through 
the  medium  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  !  Now,  at  the  date  of 
the  appearance  of  Islamism  in  the  Sudan  (which  was  towards 
the  eleventh  century)  the  civilisation  of  the  Pharaohs  had  been 
dethroned  for  nearly  four  hundred  years  by  that  of  the  Khalifs. 
It  is  hardly  possible  that  the  apostles  of  a  new  and  essentially 
exclusive  cult  would  have  imported  and  established  the  manners 
of  ancient  Egypt  in  preference  to  those  of  contemporary  and 
Arabian  Egypt,  which  was  at  that  time  at  the  height  of  its 
prosperity.  It  follows  therefore  that  the  direct  relation  with 
Egypt  must  have  been  instituted  prior  to  the  appearance  of 
Islamism.  The  strength  of  the  connection,  in  spite  of  the  enor- 
mous distance  which  separates  the  valley  of  the  Nile  from  that  of 
the  Niger,  plainly  indicates  a  direct  relation.  The  current  that 
flowed  so  persistently  and  strongly  between  Egypt  and  the  Sudan 
up  to  the  sixteenth  century  represents  something  more  than 
a  merely  commercial  interest ;  it  reveals  the  route  of  an  exodus. 
The  influence  and  commerce  of  Morocco  and  Algeria  in  the 
Sudan  (countries  comparatively  near)  were  for  a  long  time  over- 
powered by  distant  Egypt.  We  find  undeniable  proofs  of  this 
among  the  ancient  geographers.  Ibn  Batouta,  a  Moor,  who 
visited  the  countries  of  the  Niger  in  1352,  relates  that  at  Oualata 
'  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  wore  the  beautiful  costumes 
of  Egypt.1  Now  Oualata  is  only  two  months'  journey  distant 
from  Morocco,  while  the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  at  a  distance  of  at  least 
eight  months.  Again,  to  destroy  the  powerful  and  traditional 
bias  of  Egypt  towards  the  Niger  and  establish  the  preponderance 
of  the  northern  countries  of  Africa  would  require  no  less  than  a 
Moorish  occupation  in  1592. 

The  Songhois  themselves  furnish  further  proof  that  they  were 
originally    strangers   in    the   country.       Their    speech    is   totally 


THE    SONGHOIS  97 

different  from  the  numerous  Sudanese  dialects,  and  its  roots  are 
those  of  the  languages  of  the  Nile.  Moreover,  their  physical  type 
owns  nothing  in  common  with  that  of  the  West  African  negro. 
In  the  most  mixed  group  of  negroes  a  Songhois  may  be  identified 
at  the  first  glance  ;  his  skin  is  as  black  as  theirs,  certainly,  but 
nothing  in  his  mask  conforms  to  their  well-known  characteristics. 
The  nose  of  the  Songhois  is  straight  and  long,  pointed  rather  than 
flat ;  the  lips  are  comparatively  thin,  and  the  mouth  wide  rather 
than  prominent  and  broad ;  while  the  eyes  are  deeply  set  and 
straight  in  their  orbit.  A  cursory  glance  shows  that  the  profile 
resembles  that  of  the  European,  and  one  is  struck  by  the  remark- 
able intelligence  of  their  physiognomy  and  expression.  In  addi- 
tion, they  are  tall,  well-made,  and  slender. 

These  peculiarities  are  still  more  noticeable  among  children 
between  six  and  ten  years  of  age.  Their  skins  are  less  pro- 
foundly black  than  are  those  of  other  infant  negroes,  and  the 
regularity  of  their  features  is  even  more  remarkable  than  in 
the  adult.  Many  a  time  I  have  been  arrested  by  the  sight  of  a 
group  of  children  in  Jenne  and  charmed  by  their  rare  beauty. 
They  seemed  to  be  deeply  bronzed  children  of  the  race  of  Shem 
rather  than  of  Ham.  In  short,  the  Songhois  recalls  the  Nubian 
rather  than  the  West  African  negro,  and  I  have  studied  both  at 
leisure.  Ethnography,  then,  assists  us  in  determining  the  point 
of  departure  of  the  emigration  from  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

It  is  to  the  south  of  the  island  of  Philae  that  we  find  a 
similar  race,  and  there  also  has  ancient  Egypt  left  indelible 
traces.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  river  she  has  set  up  a  magnifi- 
cent series  of  her  most  characteristic  monuments,  and  it  is  small 
wonder  that  its  inhabitants  should  be  so  strongly  imbued  with 
them  that  they  preserved  the  vision  to  the  furthest  point  of  their 
wanderings. 

H 


98 


TIMBUCTOO 


This  point  was  Gao,  as  we  have  already  seen.  Quitting  a 
country  of  such  numerous  waters  as  Nubia,  the  emigrants  would 
naturally,  before  settling,  seek  a  situation  that  would  recall  the 
land  of  their  birth  in  its  external  conformation  ;  less  from 
pious  memories,  perhaps  (patriotism  is  always  the  latest  virtue 
acquired  by  a  race),  than  from  a  desire  to  continue  to  live  accord- 
ing to  their  customs  and  special  aptitudes.  For  a  great  distance 
their  route  would  appear  singularly  unpropitious,  for  much  sand 
and  little  water  was  not  what  they  wanted,  and  they  would  not 
settle  in  any  quantities  between  the  Nile  and  the  Niger. 

But  at  Gao  they  would  find  a  river  which  would  recall  the 
shores  they  had  left,  and  whose  rise  and  fall  fertilised  the  country 
in  the  same  manner.  Here  they  could  resume  their  accustomed 
methods  of  labour  and  cultivation  ;  and,  like  Barth,  they  would 
doubtless  be  charmed  by  the  beautiful  vegetation,  containing  the 
date,  tamarind,  and  sycamore  trees  of  their  mother-country. 
And  so  they  fixed  their  capital  at  Gao,  where  they  could  think 

for  the  first  time 
of  definite  repose, 
and  where  their 
hope  of  a  new 
home  was  realised. 
Half  the  valley 
of  the  Niger  they 
made  their  own, 
finding  only  a 
feeble  and  patient 
aboriginal  population  there,  which  has  almost  disappeared  to-day. 
These  people,  the  Habais,  are  so  timid  that  they  arm  themselves 
with  bows  and  arrows  to  work  in  fields  which  are  surrounded  by 
their  own  villages,  and  then  prefer  running  away  to  using  their 


THE   EARLY   SONGHOI    EMPIRE 


THE    SONGHOIS  99 

weapons.  Occupation  was  therefore  an  easy  matter  to  the  Songhois. 
They  founded  Jenne,  their  most  western  territory,  in  765,  and  made 
it  the  market  of  their  empire.  We  may  conclude  their  dominion  to 
have  attained  its  normal  and  present  boundaries  towards  the  end 
of  the  eighth  century.  These  limits  comprise  the  countries  from 
the  east  of  Gao  to  Lake  Chad,  and  that  portion  of  the  valley  of 
the  Niger  below  Jenne  and  Say.  The  Sahara  bounds  them  in  the 
north,  the  empire  of  the  Mali  in  the  west,  and  the  countries 
of  the  Bambaras,  the  Mossi,  and  the  Sokoti  in  the  south  ;  while 
the  vague  regions  between  Agades  and  Lake  Chad  limit  them 
in  the  east. 

We  will  now  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  history  of  the 
Songhois  and  the  considerable  place  their  empire  held  in  the 
Sudan  during  a  period  of  nearly  a  thousand  years.  It  comprised 
three  dynasties,  the  Dia,  the  Sunni,  and  the  Askia,  and  was  not 
without  its  hours  of  glory. 

The  prefix  of  the  Dia  was  borrowed  from  Dialliaman, 
but  the  Sudanese  annals  are  silent  concerning  their  employ- 
ment of  the  six  hundred  years  that  contained  their  reigns 
(700  to  1335)  ;  and  we  only  know  that  they  numbered  thirty 
in  all.1 


1  A  record  of  their  names  is  immaterial,  but  I  append  it,  thinking  to  please  the 
orientalists,  who  will  thus  be  enabled  to  read  them  for  the  first  time  as  they  are  pro- 
nounced by  the  Songhois. 

Dialliaman's  successors  were  :  Dia  Arkai,  Dia  Atka'i,  Dia  Akkai,  Dia  Akkou, 
Dia  Alfa'i,  Dia  Biagoumai,  Dia  Bi,  Dia  Kira,  Dia  Aum  Karawai',  Dia  Aum  Sumaiam, 
Dia  Aum  Danka,  Dia  Kiobogo,  Dia  Koukoura'i,  Dia  Kenken  ;  these  were  idolaters. 
The  sixteenth  king,  reigning  towards  the  year  1000  of  our  era,  was  converted  to 
Islamism  in  1010,  and  since  then  all  the  Songhoi  princes  have  been  Mussulmans. 
The  list  of  names  continues  without  incident  up  to  Dia  Sobo'i  :  Dia  Koussai  Daria, 
Dia  Hin  Koronou  Goudam,  Dia  Bia  Koni  Kimi,  Dia  Binta  Say,  Dia  Bia  Kama 
Kamba,  Dia  Kama  Siniobo,  Dia  Tip,  Dialliaman  Diago,  Dia  AH  Korr,  Dia  Berr 
Faloco,  Dia  Sibo'i,  Dia  Dourou,  Dia  Kabaro,  Dia  Bissi  Baro,  Dia  Bada. 


100  TIMBUCTOO 

In  the  reign  of  Dia  Soboi  the  Songhoi  kingdom  experienced 
its  first  crisis,  becoming  the  vassal  of  its  neighbour  of  the  west,  the 
Mali  empire,  then  at  the  height  of  its  glory.  In  addition  to  this 
an  army  of  the  Mossi  crossed  the  valley  to  pillage  Timbuctoo, 
and  succeeded  in  separating  Jenne  from  the  main  body  of  the 
empire  (1329). 

Dia  Sobof  s  two  sons,  Ali  Kolon  and  Suliman  Nare,  were  taken 
to  the  court  of  Kqnkour-Moussa.  '  For  it  was,  and  is  still,  the 
custom  in  the  Sudan  for  a  monarch  to  be  served  by  the  children 
of  his  vassals,'  says  the  Tarik.  '  Some  were  permitted  to  return 
to  their  native  countries  after  a  certain  time,  but  others  lived  in 
bondage  to  the  end  of  their  days.'  The  young  Songhoi  princes 
were  detained  for  a  long  period  at  the  court  of  Konkour-Moussa, 
but  Ali  Kolon  travelled  through  the  kingdom  of  the  Mali  from 
time  to  time  under  the  pretext  of  increasing  its  revenues  and 
augmenting  its  commerce.  ,  He  was  an  intelligent  youth,  full  of  . 
prudence,  reflection,  and  enlightenment.  By  prolonging  each 
journey  a  little  further  he  learned  to  know  the  roads  of  the 
country,  and,  above  all,  those  leading  towards  Songhoi.  At  last 
he  determined  in  his  heart  to  return  to  his  native  land,  and 
for  this  purpose  he  collected  stores  of  arms  and  provisions,  which 
he  concealed  along  the  route  he  intended  to  take.  Having 
confided  his  plan  to  his  brother,  they  began  to  train  their  horses, 
feeding  them  well  and  accustoming  them  to  endure  great  fatigue. 
One  day  they  took  their  departure.  When  the  news  of  their 
flight  came  to  the  king's  ears  he  commanded  them  to  be  pursued 
and  killed  ;  but  although  they  were  overtaken,  they  defended 
themselves  so  well  that  they  were  enabled  to  reach  the  country 
of  the  Songhois. 

Ali  Kolon  was  proclaimed  king  and  given  the  name  of  '  Sunni, 
the  Liberator.' 


THE    SONGHOIS 


101 


Such  is  the  history  of  the  founder  of  the  second  dynasty,  which 
lasted  from  1355  to  1492,  and  counted  eighteen  kings.1 

Freed  by  Ali  Kolon  from  the  dominion  of  the  Mali,  the 
Songhois  resumed  the  peaceable  existence  they  seemed  to  have 
led  in  the  preceding  centuries. 

The  history  of  the  Songhois  takes  a  wider  range  with  Sunni 
Ali  (1464  to  1493).  They  now  overflow  their  earlv  boundaries 


JENNE  :    A   CORNER   OF  THE  TOWN 

and  develop  an   empire  of  an  extent  never  before  witnessed    in 
western  Africa. 

1  Sunni  Alikolon,  Sunni  Suliman  Nare,  Sunni  Ibrahim  Kobia,  Sunni  Osman 
Kanava,  Sunni  Barkai'na  Ankabi,  Sunni  Moussa,  Sunni  Boukari  Dianka,  Sunni 
Boukar  Dalla  Bougoumba,  Sunni  Marikin,  Sunni  Mohammed  Daon,  Sunni  Moham- 
med Kokia,  Sunni  Mohammed  Barro,  Sunni  Mare  Kollighimon,  Sunni  Mare  Arcouna, 
Sunni  Mare  Ardhan,  Sunni  Suliman  Dami,  Sunni  Ali,  and  Sunni  Baro  (or  Boukari 
Dao). 


102  TIMBUCTOO 

Sunni  All  is  pre-eminently  the  soldier ;  the  true  negro  soldier, 
who  marches  from  conquest  to  conquest  absorbing  all  the  popu- 
lations in  war,  and  so  absorbed  in  it  himself  that  he  has  no 
time  to  create  and  organise  his  conquests  in  durable  form.  He 
is  an  old  soldier  solely  occupied  with  plunder  and  prisoners  and 
the  levying  of  tribute.  Nevertheless,  while  fighting  from  east  to 
west  during  twenty  years,  he  is  unconsciously  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  Songhoi  greatness ;  and  the  ground  being  thus  prepared, 
it  is  not  long  before  an  organiser  appears  who  speedily  raises  the 
glory  and  prosperity  of  the  empire  to  their  greatest  height. 

The  career  of  Ali  the  Conqueror  started  in  masterly  fashion 
with  the  conquest  of  Timbuctoo  in  1469.  It  is  somewhat  sur- 
prising that  we  have  not  met  this  name  earlier  in  the  history 
of  the  most  civilised  race  of  the  Sudan ;  but  it  was  not  founded 
by  them,  and  had  never  before  been  counted  among  their  pos- 
sessions. So  complete  was  the  annexation  of  this  famous  city 
that  it  obtained  its  supreme  grandeur  at  the  precise  moment  of 
the  Songhois1  pre-eminence  and  declined  with  their  fall. 

Jenne,  having  emancipated  itself  at  the  time  the  Mali  and 
the  Mossi  were  signalising  their  victories  over  the  last  of  the 
Dias,  was  reduced  to  obedience  after  a  long  siege.  Sunni  Ali 
followed  up  the  conquest  by  attacking  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Mossi  and  the  Hombouri  in  the  centre  of  the  valley,  and  the 
Teska  Kouboura  and  Kanta  in  the  east.  His  chief  and  most 
prolonged  effort,  however,  was  directed  to  the  west,  and  con- 
centrated upon  the  destruction  of  that  Mali  empire  which  had 
threatened  his  nation  in  former  days.  He  subdued  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  left  bank  of  the  western  Niger  in  this  manner, 
taking  little  Haoussa  (south  of  Timbuctoo)  and  Barra  (country 
of  Gundam  at  Lake  Debo);  destroying  Guiddio,  a  large  town 
on  Lake  Debo,  and  fighting  against  the  Senhadiata,  the  Foulbes, 


THE    SONGHOIS  103 

and  the  people  of  Diarka.  Returning  to  Gao  from  one  of  these 
expeditions,  he  was  drowned  in  a  small  tributary  of  the  Niger  to 
the  south  of  Timbuctoo. 

'  He  only  suffered  two  reverses,"  relates  the  chronicle,  '  one  at 
Duoneo  (Douentza?)  and  the  other  in  Barkou  (Bourgoo).  He 
surpassed  all  the  kings,  his  predecessors,  in  the  numbers  and  valour 
of  his  soldiery.  His  conquests  were  many,  and  his  renown 
extended  from  the  rising  to  the  setting  of  the  sun.  If  it  is 
the  will  of  God,  he  will  be  long  spoken  of.1  The  Sudanese 
writers  do,  in  fact,  speak  much  of  Ali  the  Conqueror,  but  it  is 
in  an  unexpected  fashion.  They  heap  the  most  violent  epithets 
upon  him  and  cover  him  with  insults.  'An  impious  monarch 
and  horrible  tyrant,1  says  one.  '  A  great  oppressor  and  destroyer 
of  towns,  with  a  hard  and  unjust  heart,1  says  another.  '  A 
sanguinary  despot  who  slaughtered  so  many  thousands  of  people 
that  God  alone  knows  their  number ;  he  was  cruel  to  the  pious 
and  wise,  he  humiliated  them  and  put  them  to  death,1  exclaims 
a  third. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  was  neither  better  nor  worse  than  his 
successors,  nor  any  other  Sudanese  prince.  War  has  always  a 
particularly  brutal  and  detestable  aspect  in  negro  countries.  The 
impartiality  of  history  has  no  concern  with  these  accumulations  of 
abuse  ;  they  merely  represent  the  personal  venom  of  his  chroniclers. 
These  were  the  marabuts  who  represented  literature  and  the 
sciences,  and  were  the  vicegerents  of  Islam  ;  it  was  this  latter 
capacity  that  dictated  their  judgments.  The  incident  is  interest- 
ing for  its  revelation  of  the  bitter  and  revengeful  feelings  which 
at  this  period  actuated  the  Mohammedaa  religion  towards  outside 
affairs,  even  those  of  the  past.  It  had  not  attained  to  great 
power  at  this  time,  and  its  roots  were  by  no  means  established 
in  the  country.  Later  on,  having  acquired  a  stronger  growth, 


-V 

104  TIMBUCTOO 

we  shall  find  it  still  pursuing  this  role  and  becoming  the  prime 
factor  in  considerable  and  calamitous  events.  The  great  griev- 
ance cherished  against  the  conqueror  by  the  marabuts  was  his 
very  lukewarm  religiousness.  6  He  took  great  liberties  with  the 
faith,"*  relates  the  Tarik.  '  He  was  wont  to  delay  until  nightfall 
or  even  till  next  morning  the  five  prayers  which  every  good 
Mussulman  should  say  between  the  rising  and  the  setting  of  the 
sun.  By  degrees  he  contented  himself  with  merely  mentioning 
their  names,  and  finally  he  still  further  simplified  these  negligences 
into  a  single  invocation  of  the  name  of  God,  adding,  "  You  all 
know  my  prayers,  let  each  take  therefrom  what  concerns  him.""' 

The  origin  of  this  scepticism  is  explained  in  a  little  work  by 
El  Mouchali,  a  very  learned  man  of  Tlemcen,  of  whom  I  shall 
have  occasion  to  speak  later  on.  He  affords  us  a  glimpse  of  the 
customs  of  the  period,  and  shows  us  the  position  of  Islamism  in 
this  country  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
higher  classes  alone,  it  appears,  had  rallied  to  the  religion  of 
Mahomet,  and  that  without  any  great  conviction.  Idolatry  was 
not  prohibited  in  the  court  itself,  and,  seeing  that  the  monarch 
showed  himself  scarcely  a  Mohammedan  even  in  name,  his  retinue 
would  naturally  follow  his  example.  The  people  openly  continued 
to  practise  witchcraft  and  the  worship  of  fetiches,  whose  temples 
remained  standing  even  in  Gao  and  Jenne. 

'  God  had  directed  us,1  says  another  extract,  4  towards  a  country 
whose  inhabitants  called  themselves  Mussulmans,  and  who  were  so 
on  the  surface.  They  attended  the  great  service  of  Friday  and 
the  week-day  call  to  the  five  prayers,  but  we  had  little  confidence 
in  their  marabuts.  .  .  .  The  manners  of  this  country  are  very 
singular.  We  find  a  people  here  who  pretend  to  know  the  science 
of  occult  things,  and  base  this  knowledge  upon  a  study  of  lines 
traced  upon  the  sand,  on  the  position  of  the  stars,  the  cries  of 


r  j< 


106  TIMBUCTOO 

birds  and  their  flight,  etc.  They  profess  to  write  charms  which  will 
increase  profits,  excite  love,  and  oppose  ruin  ;  which  will  put  their 
enemies  to  flight  in  battle  and  preserve  themselves  from  the  sword 
and  the  poison  of  arrows  :  and  many  other  things  that  sorcerers 
practise  in  incantations. 

'  The  mother  of  Sunni  Ali  came  from  the  country  of  Farou 
(Sokato),  a  nation  of  infidels  who  adored  images  of  wood  and 
stone.  They  had  faith  in  these  idols  and  consulted  them.  When 
good  or  evil  befell  them,  they  ascribed  it  to  the  idols  being 
favourable  or  unfavourable.  The  worship  of  these  false  gods  is 
directed  by  priests,  who  are  guided  in  their  turn  by  soothsayers 
and  magicians  who  give  consultations. 

'  Sunni  Ali  passed  his  youth  and  grew  to  manhood  there,  and 
his  mind  was  naturally  influenced  by  these  idolatries  and  customs. 
Nevertheless,  he  decided  in  favour  of  Mohammedanism  when  he 
became  king,  although  its  usages  were  barely  known  to  him.  He 
would  add  after  the  name  of  the  Prophet,  Let  him  be  praised : 
and  after  the  holy  name  of  Allah  he  would  say,  May  the 
prayer  and  salvation  of  God  be  with  him.  But  the  reverse  is 
what  he  should  have  said.  For  a  time  he  fasted  during  the 
month  of  Ramadan,  and  made  offerings  and  sacrifices  in  the 
mosques ;  but  after  a  while  he  returned  to  idols  and  soothsayers, 
he  sought  guidance  in  practices  of  witchcraft,  and  honoured  trees 
and  stones  with  sacrifices  and  offerings,  asking  of  them  the  fulfil- 
ment of  his  desires. 

'At  last,  neither  he  nor  his  companions  were  ever  seen  (even  on 
Friday)  in  the  cathedral  mosque,  or  in  any  of  the  others,  and  from 
fear  of  him  the  thousands  of  men  and  women  dwelling  in  his  house 
neither  fasted  nor  prayed  during  Ramadan.  He  did  not  know  the 
Fatiha  (the  first  sura)  by  heart,  nor  any  other  sura  of  the  Koran. 
Habitually  careless  in  his  prayers,  he  neither  bowed  nor  pro- 


THE    SONGHOIS  107 

strated  himself  during  their  recitation.  He  had  relations  with 
women  that  are  unrecognised  by  marriage,  or  any  other  contract 
permitted  by  Islamism.  If  a  woman  pleased  him  he  took  her  to 
his  palace  regardless  of  her  husband  or  her  family.  He  also 
allowed  Mussulmans  to  be  pillaged  and  slain,  and  he  put  to  death 
many  theologians  and  learned  men  of  law." 

The  last  clause  is  true,  but  Mouchali  omits  to  add  that  Sunni 
Ali  only  ill-treated  certain  marabuts,  and  those,  not  because  they 
were  Mussulmans  and  priests,  but  because  they  had  interfered  in 
politics  and  conspired  against  him  on  account  of  his  scepticism. 
In  spite  of  his  enemies  among  the  caste,  he  invariably  honoured 
the  holy  men  who  made  religion  and  piety  alone  their  study  ; 
'always  keeping  an  accurate  record  of  their  numbers,1  says  the 
Tarik,  '  he  paid  homage  to  their  merits  and  made  them  large 
presents."1  This  generosity  shows  the  tolerant  spirit  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  Songhoi  people. 

I  will  only  dwell  upon  one  more  side  of  his  character,  the 
violence  and  frenzy  of  his  wrath.  It  flamed  into  a  fury  upon 
the  least  provocation,  and  in  its  transport  he  would  order  the 
death  of  any  one  of  his  retinue,  even  of  the  one  who  was 
useful  and  devoted  to  him  and  whom  he  most  cherished. 
The  excess  of  his  rage  was  only  equalled  by  the  promptness  of 
his  remorse.  His  servants  were  aware  of  this,  and,  when  the 
condemned  person  was  one  whom  Sunni  Ali  would  afterwards 
regret,  they  would  merely  keep  him  out  of  sight  until  the  moment 
of  repentance  arrived.  The  king  would  be  filled  with  joy  upon 
these  occasions  to  find  that  the  fulfilment  of  his  commands  had 
been  delayed. 

Among  those  whose  existence  was  often  separated  from 
Paradise  by  a  mere  thread  was  Mohammed  ben  Abou  Bakr, 
a  native  of  Touroud.  It  is  not  easy  to  establish  the  exact 


108 


TIMBUCTOO 


number  of  times  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  he  was  Sunni's 
right  hand,  his  best  general  and  his  wisest  minister.  'A  great 
heart,  gifted  with  a  great  generosity  which  God  had  given  him 
by  nature." 

The  death   of  Sunni  Ali  gave  this  man  food  for  reflection. 


A    HOUSE    IN  JENNE 


He  naturally  did  not  care  to  continue  the  same  precarious 
existence  under  the  son,  Sunni  Barro,  which  he  had  enjoyed  under 
the  father.  His  personal  influence  being  considerable,  he  deter- 
mined to  seize  the  crown. 

'As  soon  as  his  preparations  were  complete,  therefore,  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  partisans  and  attacked  Sunni 
Barro  at  Dangha.  His  army  was  defeated  and  he  was  obliged 
to  take  refuge  in  Gao.  Reassembling  his  forces,  however,  the 
adventurer  tried  his  fortunes  a  second  time.  The  struggle  which 
ensued  was  a  long  and  desperate  one,  both  armies  being  all  but 
annihilated,  but  Sunni  Barro  was  finally  obliged  to  fly  from  the 


THE    SONGHOIS  109 

country  never  to  return  to  it,  and  Mohammed  ben  Abou  Bakr 
ascended  the  throne  in  1494. 

The  news  being  announced  to  the  daughters  of  Sunni  Ali, 
they  exclaimed  '  Askia ! '  which  signifies  '  It  is  not  he,'  or 
4  Usurper.1  This  being  repeated  to  him,  Mohammed  ordained 
that  no  other  surname  should  be  given  him,  and  Askia  Mohammed 
he  accordingly  became. 

We  have  thus  arrived  at  the  third  and  last  Songhoi  dynasty, 
which  reigned  from  1494  to  1591. 

Askia  Mohammed  showed  considerable  political  ability  from 
the  very  moment  of  his  accession.  He  adopted  an  entirely  new  atti- 
tude towards  religion,  and  a  few  months  after  his  accession  there 
was  not  a  more  devout  Mussulman  throughout  all  Songhois  than 
the  late  friend  and  companion  of  the  6  miserable  infidel.1  He 
insisted  that  Islamism  should  be  held  in  honour  throughout  the 
country,  and  instead  of  the  former  soothsayers  his  retinue  .now 
consisted  of  marabuts.  He  showered  gifts  upon  them  and  took 
their  advice  in  everything. 

They,  in  return,  hastened  to  legitimise  his  usurpation,  autho- 
rised him  to  take  possession  of  the  Conqueror's  treasure,  and  assisted 
him  in  despoiling  the  dignitaries  of  the  former's  rule.  They 
demonstrated  in  council  that  Sunni  Ali  had  been  the  most 
abominable  of  infidels,  and,  in  consequence,  the  war  undertaken 
by  Askia  against  his  descendant  was  a  necessary  war,  an  excellent 
war — in  short,  a  holy  war. 

The  pious  biographers  exult  over  him,  they  represent  him 
as  '  a  brilliant  light  shining  after  great  darkness ;  a  saviour 
who  drew  the  servants  of  God  from  idolatry  and  the  country 
from  ruin.  The  Defender  of  the  Faithful,  who  scattered  joy, 
gifts,  and  alms  around  him.' 


110  TIMBUCTOO 

As  soon  as  his  authority  was  well  established  he  placed 
the  reins  of  government  in  the  hands  of  his  brother  Omar,  and 
proceeded  to  still  further  legitimise  himself  by  a  gorgeous  pilgrim- 
age to  Mecca  and  Cairo  (1497). 

'He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  house  of  God,  accompanied 
by  a  thousand  foot-soldiers  and  five  hundred  horse,  and  carrying 
with  him  three  hundred  thousand  mitkals  of  gold  from  the  treasure 
of  Sunni  Ali.  He  scattered  this  treasure  in  the  holy  places,  at 
the  tomb  of  the  Prophet  in  Medina,  and  at  the  sacred  mosque  at 
Mecca.  In  the  latter  town  he  bought  gardens  and  established  a 
charitable  institute  for  the  people  of  the  Sudan.  This  place  is 
well  known  in  Mecca,  and  cost  five  thousand  mitkals. 

'  He  rendered  homage  to  the  Khalif  Abassid  Motewekkel  in 
Egypt,  praying  to  be  made  his  deputy  in  the  Sudan  in  general 
and  in  Songhois  in  particular.  The  Abassid  consented,  requiring 
the  king  of  Songhois  to  abdicate  for  three  days  and  to  place  the 
power  in  his  hands.  On  the  fourth  day  Motewekkel  solemnly 
proclaimed  Askia  Mohammed  the  representative  of  the  sultan 
in  the  Sudan.  He  accompanied  this  by  placing  a  green  fez 
and  white  turban  upon  his  head  and  returning  him  his  sabre." 

This  pilgrimage  had  another  and  still  more  important  effect 
upon  his  reign  and  his  people,  for  he  assiduously  entertained  the 
theologians  and  learned  men  of  Cairo  while  there.  He  evinced 
a  great  interest  in  many  subjects,  and  displayed  much  anxiety  to 
receive  their  counsel  upon  the  best  and  most  enlightened  manner 
of  life  and  government.  He  deferred  especially  to  Essoyouti, 
a  scholar  whose  name  is  celebrated  in  Arabian  literature  to  this 
day.  Askia  opened  a  correspondence  with  him  on  his  return  to 
Songhois,  and  always  submitted  his  most  important  reforms  to 
the  savant,  never  neglecting  to  follow  his  advice  concerning  them. 
It  was  at  Cairo,  undoubtedly,  that  he  acquired  those  notions  of 


THE    SONGHOIS 


111 


government  which  his  organising  genius  applied  to  the  erection 
of  a  fabric  so  solid  and  durable  that  it  lasted  to  the  end  of  his 
dynasty.  Thus  once  again  we  find  Egypt  exercising  a  civilising 
influence  upon  the  Sudan. 

Having  won  the  sonorous  title  of  '  Emir  Askia  el  Hadj  (the 
pilgrim)  Mohamman'  by  this  long  voyage,  he  earned,  as  the  im- 
mediate result  of  it,  the  more  valuable  title  of  Askia  the  Great. 
He  resumed  the  reins  of  government  on  his  return,  making  his 
brother  Omar  his  generalissimo.  The  position  of  neither  was 


VIEW   OF  JENNE 


an  easy  one,  for  Sunni  All's  unorganised  conquests  had  to  be 
consolidated — almost,  in  fact,  renewed ;  and  hardly  a  year  of  his 
reign  is  unmarked  by  some  expedition. 

The  first  was  against  the  Mossi  in  1449.  This  kingdom, 
situated  to  the  south  of  Songhois,  had  pursued  a  very  turbulent 
and  aggressive  policy,  and  advancing  its  boundaries  throughout 
the  north  of  the  valley  (Gourma)  had  penetrated  as  far  as 
Oualata.  The  Tarik  describes  their  suppression  by  Askia  in  the 
following  words  : — 

'The  Emir  sent  an  ambassador  to  the  king  of  Mossi  demand- 
ing his  conversion  to  Islamism.  The  monarcli  replied,  saying  he 


TIMBUCTOO 

must  take  counsel  with  his  ancestors  who  were  in  the  other  world ; 
and  for  this  purpose  he  retired  to  the  temple  of  his  idols,  accom- 
panied by  his  court  and  the  ambassador,  the  latter  being  curious 
to  see  how  the  dead  were  communicated  with. 

'After  the  performance  of  the  usual  ceremonies  of  these 
heathen,  an  old  man  appeared,  before  whom  they  prostrated 
themselves,  delivering  the  Emir's  message.  "  I  will  never  consent 
to  your  doing  this  thing,"  was  the  reply.  "  You  must  fight  against 
the  Songhois  until  you  have  exterminated  either  the  enemy  or 
yourselves.1'  Then  said  the  king  to  the  ambassador,  "Return 
to  your  master  and  say  to  him  that  nothing  but  war  can  be 
between  him  and  me."  When  all  the  people  had  quitted  the 
temple,  the  ambassador  spoke  to  the  being  who  had  appeared  in 
the  form  of  an  old  man,  and  said,  "In  the  name  of  the  all- 
powerful  God,  what  art  thou  ?  "  "I  am  Satan,"  was  the  response, 
"  and  I  have  led  these  people  astray  that  they  might  perish  in 
their  infidelity."  The  ambassador  related  all  that  had  passed  to 
the  Emir,  and  a  holy  war  was  declared.  The  arms  of  Askia  were 
victorious,  and  he  destroyed  their  fields  and  villages,  making  men, 
women,  and  children  his  prisoners,  and  compelling  them  to  be 
converted/ 

After  the  south,  the  west ;  and  it  now  became  necessary  to 
destroy  the  kingdom  of  the  Mali,  a  twelve  years1  task  (1501-1513). 
Zalna,  the  capital,  was  taken,  and  so  thoroughly  destroyed  that  it 
is  now  impossible  to  identify  the  situation  of  this  once  important 
town.  This  success  was  followed  up  by  a  savage  war  upon  the 
provinces,  the  towns,  and  the  races  of  the  Mali. 

The  struggle  was  a  desperate  one  on  both  sides,  and  the  final 
supremacy  was  dearly  bought,  as  the  following  anecdote  will  show  : 
4  The  Emir  lost  such  great  quantities  of  his  best  soldiers  in  Mali 
that  his  brother  Omar  wept,  saying,  "  The  Songhois  will  be  exter- 


THE    SONGHOIS 


113 


minated."  But  Askia  replied,  "  On  the  contrary,  these  conquered 
nations  will  make  our  lives  easier,  for  they  will  become  a  part  of  us, 
and  will  assist  us  in  our  enterprises."  And  in  this  manner  he 
drove  the  sadness  out  of  his  brother's  mind.1 

Having  thus  reduced  the  west,  Askia  turned  his  attention  to 
the  east,  and  reorganised  that  portion  of  his  empire  lying  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Chad  (1514-1519).  Agades  had 
asserted  its  independence  at  the  instigation  of  the  Berbers,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  reconquer  it,  as  Sunni  All  had  formerly  sub- 
dued Jenne.  He  also  subjugated  the  kingdoms  of  Katfcina,  Kano, 
Zegzey,  and  Sanfara. 

His  empire  now  extended  from  the  salt-mines  of  Thegazza  in 


THE   SONGHOI    ORGANISATION 


the  north  to  Bandouk,  or  the  country  of  Bammaku,  in  the  south, 
and  from  Lake  Chad  in  the  east  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
in  the  west.  '  It  was  a  six-months'  journey  to  cross  this  for- 
midable empire,1  says  a  contemporary. 


And  yet  the  reign  of  Askia  the  Great  is  not  so  remarkable 

i 


114  TIMBUCTOO 

for  its  conquests  as  for  the  wise  method  of  government  he  estab- 
lished in  the  country,  and  the  pains  he  took  to  closely  incorporate 
the  new  territories  with  the  Songhoi  empire. 

Unlike  Sunni  Ali,  he  was  not  content  with  simply  demanding 
tribute,  but  destroyed  all  the  old  systems,  and  reconstructed 
them,  giving  their  administration  into  the  hands  of  his  own 
functionaries.  Thus  the  empire  was  not  merely  temporarily  but 
actually  enlarged,  and  that  for  a  prolonged  period.  It  is 
said  that  his  will  was  as  well  carried  out  in  the  furthest 
extremities'  of  his  kingdom  as  in  Songhois,  or  even  in  the  royal 
palace  itself. 

Four  viceroys  were  created,  who  controlled  the  governors  of 
the  provinces,  military  chiefs,  judges,  and  the  collection  of  taxes. 
The  first  was  the  viceroyalty  of  Dandi  (with  a  capital  of  the 
same  name),  which  commanded  Lake  Chad ;  the  second,  that  of 
Bankou,  governed  the  country  between  Timbuctoo  and  Gao  in 
the  north  ;  the  third  was  the  viceroyalty  of  Bal  or  Balma,  and 
administered  the  whole  of  the  north-west  from  Timbuctoo  and 
Gambara  to  Thegazza,  and  included  the  control  of  the  king  of 
the  Touaregs ;  whilst  the  fourth  and  most  important  was  that 
of  Kourmina  (capital  Tindirma)  and  comprised  the  government 
of  Baghena  (Mali),  Barra  (capital  Sa),  Dirma  (capital  Dira),  and 
Massina. 

The  great  governments  of  Bandouk,  Kala  (Sansanding),  and 
Hombouri  had  no  viceroy. 

The  highest  officers  of  state  were  either  chosen  from  the 
royal  family  or  married  to  its  princesses,  as  were  the  principal 
military  chiefs  and  marabuts. 

The  administration  thus  formed  a  dynastic  aristocracy  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  national  unity. 

Another  innovation,  which  assisted  Askia  to  effect  his  numerous 


THE    SONGHOIS  115 

conquests  and  ensure   the  peace  and  prosperity  of  the  country, 
was  the  creation  of  a  standing  army. 

Sunni  AH  had  completely  disorganised  the  Songhois  by 
pelling  all  the  available  population  to  prosecute  his  wars.  Askia, 
on  the  other  hand,  '  divided  his  people  into  subjects  and  soldiers.' 
It  was  this  trained  soldiery  that  made  the  conquest  of  the  impro- 
vised and  inexperienced  bands  of  his  enemies  so  easy.  He  formed 
a  large  body  of  cavalry,  armed  with  spears  and  mounted  on 
powerful  horses  brought  from  barbarous  states.  The  bellicose 
Touaregs  were  also  formed  into  auxiliary  squadrons. 

The  numerous  infantry  were  armed  with  bows  and  poisoned 
arrows;  the  great  chiefs  went  to  battle  in  cuirasses  and  iron 
helmets,  while  the  less  important  had  shields  only.  When  the 
new  territories  had  so  greatly  increased  that  the  Songhois  soldiers 
no  longer  sufficed  to  maintain  them,  Askia  recruited  new  troops 
from  the  conquered  populations,  thus  fulfilling  the  reassuring 
prospects  with  which  he  had  comforted  Omar  during  the  san- 
guinary Mali  campaign. 

The  division  of  the  population  into  civil  and  military  classes 
permitted  the  productive  and  trading  elements  to  pursue  their 
occupations  undisturbed.  Commerce  developed  amazingly,  its 
transactions  being  favoured  and  assisted  by  excellent  measures 
guaranteeing  regularity  and  honesty.  A  unification  of  weights 
and  measures  was  decreed,  and  all  falsifications  were  severely 
punished,  every  market  of  importance  being  placed  under  the 
surveillance  of  an  inspector.  Jenne  was  the  centre  of  the  internal 
commerce,  Timbuctoo  monopolised  relations  with  the  west  and 
north-west  (Morocco  and  Tuat  principally),  and  Gao  those  with 
the  east  and  north-east  (Egypt  and  Tripoli). 

The  Niger  constituted  the  principal  commercial  route,  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  transactions  were  carried  on  by  water.  Euro- 


116  TIMBUCTOO 

pean  merchandise  penetrated  in  large  quantities  to  the  centre 
of  the  black  world,  and  were  in  such  request,  that  the  supply 
scarcely  kept  pace  with  the  demand. 

In  the  train  of  the  merchants  came  the  learned  strangers  who 
flocked  to  the  Sudan  upon  hearing  that  they  would  be  parti- 
cularly well  received.  They  came  from  Morocco,  Tuat,  Algeria, 
and  Cairo.  Science  and  letters  received  a  sudden  impetus,  and 
were  not  long  in  producing  Sudanese  writers  of  the  greatest 
interest;  whose  manuscripts,  in  fact,  furnish  me  with  all  these 
details,  and  of  whom  I  shall  speak  at  greater  length  when  we 
have  reached  Timbuctoo. 

Among  his  numerous  innovations  Askia  naturally  did  not 
neglect  religion.  It  had,  after  himself,  an  official  and  supreme 
representative  (exclusively  ecclesiastic)  in  the  person  of  a  Sheik- 
ul-Islam,  whose  residence  was  at  Timbuctoo.  The  king  had  seen 
a  similar  authority  side  by  side  with  the  Khalif  Abassid  in 
Egypt ;  and  he  adopted  this  religious  institution,  together  with 
the  attire  and  manner  of  living  of  the  Arabian  ruler.  He  formed 
the  etiquette  of  his  court  upon  that  of  the  Khalifs,  keeping 
himself  strictly  invisible  to  the  vulgar  eye.  '  Askia  el  Hadj  did 
not  care  to  be  seen,"  reports  the  Tarik,  '  and  he  persuaded  his 
brother  Omar  to  follow  his  example  in  this.  "  Expose  not  thyself 
to  perish  of  the  evil  eye,"  he  said  to  him/  He  compelled  the 
women  of  the  towns  to  lead  the  life  of  the  Eastern  harem,  and 
forbade  that  any  (married  or  single)  should  show  themselves 
unveiled,  making  his  own  family  set  the  example.  People 
approaching  the  king  in  audience  covered  their  heads  with  dust : 
he  never  spoke  directly  to  assemblies  nor  to  the  people,  but 
always  dealt  with  them  through  the  medium  of  a  herald.  Upon 
the  occasions  of  his  going  out,  his  cortege  was  preceded  by 
musicians,  drums,  and  trumpets,  and  he  rode  in  solitary  state, 


THE    SONGHOIS  117 

with  his  suite  at  a  respectful  distance  behind.  Servants 
marched  surrounding  his  horse,  and  holding  by  turns  to  his 
saddle ;  they  were  called  foot  companions,  and  their  head-man 
was  the  '  master  of  the  road.'  Viceroys  had  a  right  to  a  similar 
but  more  modest  display.  Only  one  drum  was  allowed  to  precede 
them,  and  their  musicians  were  to  keep  silence  when  in  sight  of 
a  town  in  which  the  king  was  residing.  In  short,  the  royal 
negro,  like  other  white  usurpers,  made  the  greater  parade  of  the 
power  and  state  of  majesty  the  less  right  he  had  to  it.  But  all 
this  is  insignificant  in  view  of  the  really  great  qualities  possessed 
by  this  ruler  of  the  Songhois. 

A  wonderful  impulse  was  imparted  to  this  country  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  a  marvellous  civilisation  appeared  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  black  continent.  This  civilisation  was  not  imposed 
by  circumstances  and  force,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  even  in  our  own 
countries,  but  was  spontaneously  desired,  evoked,  and  propagated 
by  a  man  of  the  negro  races.  Unfortunately,  its  fairest  promises 
were  never  fulfilled,  owing,  not  so  much  to  the  native  successors, 
as  to  the  civilised  (some  say  white)  peoples  who  ruthlessly 
destroyed  all  this  good  seed,  and  caused  the  tares  of  barbarism 
to  sprout  anew. 

After  thirty-five  years  of  responsibilities  nobly  discharged,  the 
faculties  of  Askia  the  Great  began  to  decline.  His  numerous  sons 
(he  had  a  hundred)  now  longed  to  be  quit  of  him,  and  finally  the 
eldest,  Askia  Moussa,  revolted  and  deposed  his  father  at  Gao,  1529. 

All  that  Moussa  and  his  successors  were  called  upon  to  do  was 
to  live  in  the  solid  edifice  erected  by  the  founder  of  their  dynasty. 
I  will  only  relate,  therefore,  those  particulars  of  their  reigns  which 
will  enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the  character,  manners,  and 
customs  of  these  people  at  this  time. 


118  TIMBUCTOO 

Melissa's  first  care  was  to  moderate  the  ambition  of  his 
brothers  by  having  a  certain  number  of  them  put  to  death. 
Some  offered  armed  resistance,  notably  Bala,  his  father's  favourite 
son.  '  Being  forced  to  give  himself  up,  Bala  replied  to  the 
intercession  of  the  king's  son  on  his  behalf,  "My  child,  it  is 
necessary  that  I  should  die ;  for  these  three  things  I  would  never 
consent  to  do — give  Moussa  the  title  of  Askia,  throw  dust  upon 
my  head  in  his  presence,  nor  ride  behind  him  in  processions." 
Moussa  commanded  an  exceedingly  deep  hole  to  be  dug,  in  which 
Bala  and  one  of  his  cousins  were  placed  ;  it  was  then  filled  with 
water,  and  the  two  young  men  were  drowned.'  These  singular 
family  manners  furnished  the  restored  and  consolidated  Islam  with 
an  occasion  to,  very  laudably  and  courageously,  assert  its  authority. 
The  Sheik-ul-Islam  interposed  as  mediator  between  Moussa  and 
his  brothers,  and  vindicated  his  position  in  the  following  manner. 
He  took  his  place  beside  Moussa,  turning  his  face  away  from  him. 
'  Dost  thou  dare  to  turn  thy  back  upon  me  ? '  asked  Moussa ;  and 
the  Sheik  replied,  '  I  cannot  look  upon  the  face  of  him  that  has 
deposed  the  Emir  of  the  true  believers/  On  another  occasion 
a  mere  marabut  delivered  himself  of  the  following :  '  We  enjoyed 
prosperity  and  repose  in  the. reign  of  thy  father,  the  happy,  the 
good  ;  and  we  made  prayers  that  God  might  accord  him  victory 
and  a  long  life.  We  asked  ourselves,  Has  he  a  son  who  shall  be 
the  hope  of  Islam  ?  and  we  answered,  Yes  ;  so  we  offered  prayers 
for  thee  as  well  as  for  thy  father.  Thou  hast  deceived  our  hopes, 
but  we  do  not  cease  our  prayers,  only  instead  of  invoking  God  in 
thy  favour  we  pray  against  thee.' 

Finding  themselves  in  the  process  of  decimation,  the  brothers 
of  Moussa  assassinated  him,  and  a  nephew  of  Askia  the  Great 
reigned  under  the  title  of  Askia  Bankouri  (1533).  .  He,  also,  made 
haste  to  remove  a  certain  number  of  his  uncle's  sons,  and  even 


THE    SONGHOIS 


119 


showed  an  increased  cruelty  towards  the  great  and  unhappy  old 
man  himself.  Moussa  had  at  least  left  Askia  to  live  quietly  in 
the  royal  palace  of  Gao,  but  Bankouri  relegated  him  to  the  little 
island  of  Kankaka,  to  the  west  of  that  town,  '  where  the  frogs 
leaped  around  him,'  says  the  chronicle. 

Bankouri   appears    to    have    wielded    the    power   with    great 


A   CORNER    IN  JENNE 

magnificence.  His  court  was  brilliant,  for  he  liked  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  all  his  dignitaries,  who  wore  gorgeous  garments. 
Music  was  held  in  high  esteem,  and  a  chorus  of  singing  slaves  was 
established. 

He  was  deposed  in  1537  by  the  viceroy  of  Dandi,  whom  he 
had  imprudently  threatened,  and  Askia  Ismael  was  proclaimed 
king.  The  motives  that  decided  the  latter  to  accept  the  crown 
were  as  varied  as  they  were  remarkable. 

4 1  accepted  the  honour  for   three  reasons,1  he  declared  :  '  to 


120  TIMBUCTOO 

rescue  my  father  from  his  distressful  condition,  to  enable  my 
sisters  to  resume  the  veil  that  Bankouri  had  obliged  them  to 
relinquish,  and  to  pacify  Yan  Mara,  one  of  the  hundred  hen 
ostriches  who  was  wont  to  throw  herself  into  a  frenzy  whenever 
she  saw  Bankouri.1 

The  Tarik  does  not  tell  us  if  Yan  Mara  recovered  her 
happiness  after  this,  but  we  learn  with  pleasure  that  Askia  the 
Great  returned  to  his  palace  of  Gao,  and  died  in  peace  there  in 
1538.  Ismael  was  the  first  of  the  Askia  to  die  on  his  throne 
(1540),  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Askia  Ishak.  He, 
like  his  predecessors,  had  very  strong  family  feelings,  and  put  an 
end  to  a  good  many  of  his  relations.  He  is  reported  to  have 
destroyed  one  of  them  by  means  of  a  spell.  '  Arbinda,  his  sister's 
son,  caused  him  much  anxiety.  He  was  a  remarkable  man,  of  such 
astonishing  valour,  that  he  was  greatly  desired  as  a  successor  to 
Ishak.  The  latter  confided  his  fears  to  a  man  versed  in  the  occult 
sciences,  and  begged  his  assistance.  The  magician  filled  a  vase 
with  water  and  pronounced  several  invocations,  after  which  he 
called  '  Arbinda !  Arbinda  !  come  hither ! '  Then  there  rose  out 
of  the  water  a  puppet  greatly  resembling  Arbinda,  and  the 
magician  put  chains  upon  its  feet  and  struck  it  with  a  spear, 
saying,  '  Go  ! '  and  the  puppet  disappeared.  Soon  afterwards  it 
was  found  that  Arbinda  had  died  at  the  moment  the  image  was 
struck  by  the  magician. 

The  four  last  Askias  to  reign  over  the  whole  empire  were 
Askia  Daoud,  1549-1581 ;  Askia  El  Hadj  n.,  1581-1586;  Askia 
Mohamman  Ban,  1586-1587;  and  Askia  Ishak  n.,  1587-1591. 
These,  like  their  predecessors,  undertook  a  certain  number  of 
expeditions  (almost  all  fortunate  ones),  not  so  much  to  make  new 
conquests  as  to  preserve  the  old  ones.  They  had  no  need  to 
enlarge  their  magnificent  heritage,  as  we  can  well  understand,  but 


"HE 

.DIVERSITY 

OF 


THE    SONGHOIS 


121 


they  did  not  even  make  an  effort  to  improve  it,  nor  to  encourage 
the  progress  instituted  by  the  first  of  their  race.  If,  on  the  one 
hand,  they  were  not  guilty  of  any  retrogressive  movement,  as 
little  can  any  wise  innovation  be  attributed  to  them. 

Fratricidal  struggles,  family  ferocities,  and  a  perpetual  fear  of 
rivalry,  were  their  dominant  pre-occupations,  always  including 
debauch.  '  They  changed  the  fear  of  God  into  infidelities.  Aban- 
doned to  the  practice  of  forbidden  things,  they  covered  themselves 
with  sin  in  the  open  day.  They  drank  intoxicating  liquids,  and 
committed  acts  contrary  to  nature.  Adultery  was  their  most 
common  vice ;  it  would  seem  that  they  did  not  even  consider  it 
reprehensible,  and  neither  rank  nor  services  were  any  obstacle  to 

them.     Some  even  committed  this  sin  with  their  own  sisters.' 

In  spite  of  receiving  no  care   from  its  rulers,  the  powerful 

machinery    created    and    set    in 

motion  by  Askia  the  Great  still 

endured,   so    well    had    it    been 

planned    and    so   solidly   was   it 

built.     For   nearly  a  quarter   of 

a  century  its  prosperity  suffered 

no  decrease.     The  empire  was  so 

firmly  constructed  that  it  would 

have  lasted  intact  until  the  race  of 

Askia  had  produced  a  sovereign 

worthy  of  its  founder   and  well 

fitted  to  continue  his  work. 

But  now  the  invading  Moor 

appears,  and  the  Songhoi  empire 

passes  out  of  sight,  to  become  a 

Moorish  colony,  which  is  to  say  that  the  terrible  Arabian  race  is 

about  to  accomplish  one  of  its  worst  pieces  of  work  in  the  Sudan. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    MOORS    IN   THE   SUDAN 

THE  prosperity  of  the  Sudan,  and  its  wealth  and  commerce,  were 
known  far  and  wide  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Caravans  returning 
along  the  coasts  proclaimed  its  splendours  in  their  camel  loads  of 
gold,  ivory,  hides,  musk,  and  the  spoils  of  the  ostrich.  The 
Portuguese  (always  the  first  traders  of  Europe),  endeavoured  at  this 
time  to  enter  into  relations  with  these  countries  of  the  Niger, 
whose  magnificence  had  become  a  proverb.  c  As  tar  cures  the  gall 
of  a  camel,  so  poverty  finds  its  unfailing  remedy  in  the  Sudan,' 
was  the  saying  of  northern  Africa. 

So  many  attractions  gathered  together  under  one  sky  could 
not  fail  to  rouse  the  attention,  and  by-and-by  the  cupidity,  of 
neighbouring  territories.  Chief  among  these  was  naturally  that 
country  nearest  to  the  Sudan,  Morocco.  From  the  first  their 
avarice  assumed  a  harshly  definite  character,  for  the  people  of 
Morocco  had  not,  and  never  did  have,  any  desire  to  colonise  and 
develop  a  commerce,  nor  even  to  institute  a  religious  propaganda. 
They  looked  upon  the  Sudan  in  the  light  of  a  gold-mine,  and 
their  first  aspirations,  like  their  ultimate  efforts,  were  concentrated 
upon  the  mere  drainage  of  this  precious  metal.  This  covetousness 
of  theirs  was  also  the  source  of  a  new  danger  to  the  Sudan,  as  it 
became  the  means  of  jeopardising  its  salt-supply. 

The    interior    of   the    Sudan    lacks    this    most    necessary    of 

122 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN 

products,  and  salt  represented,  and  always  will  represent,  their 
principal  article  of  commerce.  It  was  the  true  gold  of  the 
Sudanese,  their  most  precious  commodity,  and  they  obtained  it 
from  the  mines  of  Thegazza,  which  were  situated  in  the  heart  of 
the  desert.  These  mines  were  nearer  to  Morocco  than  to  the 
countries  of  the  Niger,  but  Thegazza,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
the  property  of  the  Songhois,  and  possessed  its  representative 
Emir. 

Hostilities  commenced  towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  1545  Mouley  Mohammed  El  Kebir,  the  sultan  of 
Morocco,  sent  an  embassy  to  the  king  of  the  Songhois,  claiming 
the  mines  of  Thegazza,  under  the  pretext  that  they  were  situated 
on  his  frontiers.  Askia  Ishak  i.  admitted  neither  the  pretext  nor 
the  argument,  and  emphasised  his  denial  of  the  claim  by  an  army 
of  Touaregs  whom  he  despatched  to  pillage  Draa,  a  town  on 
the  frontiers  of  Morocco,  a  plain  intimation  that  he  was  strong 
enough  to  defend  his  own,  and  was  quite  prepared  to  do  so  should 
the  sultan  be  inclined  to  dispute  his  rights. 

This  firm  attitude  gained  a  twenty-years  respite  for'  the 
Sudan,  and  the  question  was  not  reopened  until  a  later  reign. 
It  then  assumed  a  new  form  under  Mouley  Abdallah,  who,  instead 
of  claiming  Thegazza  itself,  demanded  a  rent  for  the  use  of  the 
mines.  The  Sudan  was  under  the  rule  at  this  time  of  Askia 
Daoud,  who  did  not  entertain  the  question  of  tribute,  but  sent  a 
very  conciliatory  message  to  the  sultan,  accompanied  by  a  present 
of  ten  thousand  mitkals  of  gold  (150,000  francs).  The  sultan 
was  so  overcome  by  the  magnificence  of  this  gift  that  he  made 
no  further  demands  (1547). 

The  fatal  moment  approached,  however,  with  the  accession  of 
the  Sultan  El  Mansour.  A  reform,  of  great  importance  under 
the  circumstances,  had  been  instituted  by  his  predecessor,  who 


TIMBUCTOO 

had  greatly  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  army  by  supplying  it 
with  firearms,  cannon,  etc. 

From  the  beginning  of  his  reign  El  Mansour  had  especially 
occupied  himself  with  the  Sudan.  He  sent  an  embassy  in  1583, 
ostensibly  chargeol  with  magnificent  gifts,  but  in  reality  com- 
missioned to  reconnoitre  the  roads  and  principal  towns  of  Songhois, 
and  make  a  study  of  its  army.  Askia  El  Hadj  n.  received  the 
embassy  at  Gao,  and  returned  it  laden  with  gifts  of  still  greater 
splendour  than  those  it  had  brought.  This  was  fuel  to  the  flames, 
and,  too  impatient  to  waste  any  time  in  making  preparations,  El 
Mansour  set  twenty  thousand  men  on  the  road  to  Timbuctoo. 
The  route,  traversing  desert  after  desert,  was  a  long  one,  and  in 
no  way  fitted  to  accommodate  an  unexpected  army.  Hunger  and 
thirst  very  soon  forced  the  invaders  to  retreat,  and  the  sultan  had 
to  content  himself  with  posting  a  body  of  two  hundred  musketeers 
at  Thegazza.  Thereupon  the  Sudanese  abandoned  the  place  and 
its  mines  for  others  recently  discovered  at  Taoudenni,  which 
for  the  future  supplied  them  with  the  precious  produce. 

El  Mansour  now  had  more  salt  than  he  knew  what  to  do 
with,  but  no  gold,  and  the  Sudan  continued  to  occupy  his 
thoughts.  A  new  king  reigning  in  Songhois,  he  resuscitated  the 
ancient  pretext  of  tribute,  and  demanded  a  mitkal  of  gold  for 
every  load  of  salt  entering  the  Sudan.  Askia  Ishak  n.  refused 
point  blank,  and,  by  way  of  expressing  his  whole  thought,  accom- 
panied the  refusal  by  a  gift  of  swords  and  javelins.  He  should 
have  gone  still  further,  and  followed  the  example  of  Ishak  i.  by 
sending  a  force  of  Touaregs  to  show  themselves  upon  the  Moorish 
frontier.  As  it  was.  El  Mansour  took  the  initiative. 

Having  convoked  a  grand  council  of  his  most  experienced 
advisers  at  Marrakesh,  he  explained  his  plans  to  them  in  the 
following  words  :  '  I  have  resolved  to  attack  the  Sudan.  It 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  125 

is  an  exceedingly  rich  country,  and  will  furnish  us  with  large 
taxes,  and  we  shall  thus  be  enabled  to  give  greater  importance 
to  the  Mohammedan  armies.' 

The  sultan  having  thus,  as  a  contemporary  Moorish  historian 
expresses  it,  '  emptied  his  quiver  and  purged  his  liver  of  its  bile,1 
did  not  find  his  assembly  particularly  enthusiastic  upon  the 
subject.  '  Prince,1  they  said,  4  there  is  an  immense  desert  between 
our  country  and  the  Sudan,  which  is  devoid  of  water  and  vege- 
tation, and  so  hard  to  traverse  that  the  very  birds  lose  their 
way  there.1  '  If  these  are  all  your  objections,1  replied  El  Mansour, 
6 1  see  no  reason  why  they  should  hinder  my  resolution.  You 
speak  of  dangerous  deserts  and  perilous  solitudes.  But  do  we 
not  see,  from  day  to  day,  feeble  merchants,  poor  in  resource, 
penetrating  these  regions,  and  passing  through  them  on  foot,  on 
horse  or  camel,  in  groups  or  solitary  ?  Cannot  I  do  what  these 
caravans  accomplish  ?  I,  who  am  in  every  way  better  equipped 
than  they  ?  The  conquest  itself  will  be  an  easy  one,  for  these 
Sudanese  know  neither  powder  nor  cannon,  nor  are  they 
acquainted  with  the  muskets  of  terrifying  sound.  They  are 
only  armed  with  spears  and  sabres,  and  what  can  they  avail 
against  us  ?  Why  should  we  make  war  against  the  Turk,  who 
gives  much  trouble  and  little  profit,  when  the  Sudan  would 
be  an  easy  conquest,  and  is  richer  than  the  whole  of  northern 
Africa?1  The  councillors  allowed  themselves  to  be  persuaded 
by  this  eloquence,  saying,  '  Lord,  God  has  inspired  you  with  the 
truth,  and  we  have  no  longer  anything  to  say  against  it.  So  true 
is  it  that  the  minds  of  princes  are  the  princes  of  minds.1 

El  Mansour  took  immense  pains  to  organise  an  army,  not 
great  in  numbers,  but  carefully  selected.  From  among  his  nomadic 
soldiers  and  auxiliaries  he  chose  the  bravest  and  most  devoted 
men,  providing  them  with  strong  camels  and  thoroughbred  horses. 


126  TIMBUCTOO 

In  this  manner  he  collected  an  army  of  three  thousand  musketeers 
and  a  thousand  combatants  (half  cavalry  and  half  foot)  with 
side-arms.  The  supreme  command  was  intrusted  to  the  Pasha 
Djonder,  with  ten  subordinate  chiefs  (or  kaids),  and  the  expedition 
left  Morocco  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1590. 

It  entered  the  Sudan  from  the  west,  near  the  region  of  the 
lakes  south  of  Timbuctoo,  and  its  fortunate  arrival  on  the  banks 
of  the  Niger  was  considered  in  the  light  of  its  first  victory,  and 
was  celebrated  by  a  great  festival  of  rejoicing.  It  now  turned 
towards  Gao,  the  capital,  and  when  Ishak  n.  heard  of  the  arrival 
of  the  Moors  he  assembled  an  army  of  thirty  thousand  foot  and 
twelve  thousand  horse,  and  opposed  them  to  the  invaders.  The 
battle  took  place  in  February  1591  at  Toundibi,  not  far  from 
Timbuctoo. 

El  Mansour  had  not  made  a  wrong  estimate  of  the  perfections 
of  his  armament.  The  Songhois  were  routed  almost  without  a 
blow  being  struck,  'in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,1  it  is  said.  The 
sudden  shock  of  smoke,  noise,  and  the  hail  of  balls  so  terrified 
them,  that  many,  thinking  nothing  could  preserve  them  from  such 
miracles,  did  not  even  attempt  to  fly.  They  were  found  upon 
their  shields  with  legs  crossed,  waiting  for  the  conquerors,  and 
they  allowed  themselves  to  be  killed  without  making  any  move- 
ment in  self-defence.  The  Moors  pitilessly  slew  the  demoralised 
crowd,  not  even  sparing  those  who  cried,  '  We  are  Mussulmans ; 
we  are  your  brothers  in  religion.1 

The  panic  lasted  as  it  had  reigned  during  the  battle,  and 
spread  throughout  the  entire  country.  Ishak,  who  had  gone  to 
battle  full  of  confidence,  surrounded  by  magicians  and  sorcerers, 
took  to  his  heels  at  the  beginning  of  the  action,  and  made  no 
attempt  to  resist,  even  in  the  capital  itself.  On  receiving  a  com- 
mand to  evacuate  it  the  monarch  sought  refuge  with  the  crowd, 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  127 

flying  to  Bornou  in  the  south-east,  without  attempting  the  chance 
of  a  second  battle. 

Djonder  entered  Gao  without  striking  a  blow,  and  Ishak 
hastened  to  make  overtures  of  peace,  acquiescing  in  the  demand 
of  annual  tribute,  and  offering  a  present  of  a  hundred  thousand 
mitkals  of  gold,  and  one  hundred  slaves  in  addition. 

The  pasha,  judging  these  terms  acceptable,  transmitted  them 
to  the  sultan  with  a  convoy  of  gold  and  slaves,  and  then  turned 
his  steps  to  Timbuctoo,  taking  it  without  opposition,  and  settling 
there  to  await  the  reply  of  his  master. 

El  Mansour,  however,  would  not  hear  of  limiting  himself  to 
his  original  claims.  The  success  which  he  had  so  clearly  foreseen 
intoxicated  him.  '  He  received  so  much  gold-dust,  musk,  slaves, 
ebony,  and  other  valuable  objects,1  says  the  chronicle,  '  that  the 
envious  are  troubled  and  all  spectators  are  stupefied.  He  now 
pays  his  functionaries  in  pure  metal  of  good  weight/  From  which 
it  would  appear  that  he  had  not  been  above  falsifying  his  coinage. 
'  There  were  fourteen  thousand  smiths  in  his  palace  employed  in 
making  the  gold  into  coins,  while  other  portions  of  the  treasure 
were  converted  into  necklaces  and  jewels,  and  the  name  of  El 
Dekebi  (the  Golden)  was  given  to  the  sultan/ 

Great  public  rejoicings  continued  at  Marrakesh  during  three 
days,  and  deputations  came  from  all  parts  to  offer  congratulations. 
Poets  wrote  verses  to  celebrate  El  Mansour's  glory,  inviting  '  the 
birds  of  happiness  to  sing  unceasingly  in  his  honour,1  and  calling 
him  '  the  root  of  glory  to  which  all  attach  themselves/  The 
triumph  of  the  white  over  the  negro  race  was  recorded  in  the 
following  picturesque  language:  'The  army  of  the  day  hath 
fallen  upon  the  army  of  night,  and  the  whiteness  of  the  one  hath 
destroyed  the  blackness  of  the  other/ 

It  was  not  without  reason  that  the  Moors  exulted  over  the 


J 


128  TIMBUCTOO 

conquest.  '  They  found  that  the  Sudan,1  says  the  Tarik^  '  rivalled 
the  countries  most  favoured  by  God,  in  the  abundance,  prosperity, 
security,  and  health  of  all  its  territories,  and  all  these  benefits 
resulted  from  the  blessed  reign  of  the  Emir  of  the  true  believers, 
Askia  El  Hadj.  But  from  this  time  everything  was  altered; 
security  became  fear,  prosperity  was  changed  into  ruin,  health 
into  sickness  and  anguish,  and  men  began  to  fight  and  pillage 
among  themselves. 

Dissatisfied  with  the  moderation  of  Djonder,  El  Mansour 
removed  him  from  the  supreme  command  and  instantly  despatched 
another  pasha,  named  Mahmoud,  to  the  south.  He  was  instructed 
to  pursue  Askia  Ishak  to  the  death,  and  make  the  Sudan  a 
Moorish  province.  On  reaching  Timbuctoo,  Mahmoud  garrisoned 
it  and  departed  with  the  army  in  search  of  the  king  of  the  Songhois. 
The  latter,  hearing  that  his  terms  were  rejected  by  the  sultan, 
took  up  arms  afresh ;  but  the  disaster  of  Bamba  was  as  complete 
as  that  of  the  first  encounter,  and  Ishak  was  forced  to  retreat 
further  into  the  south. 

In  these  circumstances  (already  sufficiently  critical),  the  Song- 
hois  enfeebled  themselves  still  further  by  internal  dissensions.  Half 
the  army  proclaimed  Askia  Kaghou  king,  and  Askia  Ishak  was  too 
demoralised  to  make  any  effort  to  regain  the  supremacy.  He  dis- 
appeared from  the  scene  in  a  manner  that,  if  not  heroic,  was  at  least 
tragic.  '  Having  resolved  to  yield  the  power  to  his  rival,  he  gathered 
together  the  officers  of  that  part  of  the  army  which  had  remained 
faithful  to  him,  and  collecting  all  the  insignia  of  royalty,  they 
burned  them  in  a  place  called  Tera.  The  king  and  his  officers  then 
took  leave  of  one  another,  weeping  and  begging  mutual  forgiveness; 
and  this  was  the  last  time  they  saw  each  other.'  Ishak  shortly 
afterwards  died,  obscure  and  abandoned,  at  Gourma  (1592). 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  129 

The  pasha  now  proceeded  to  a  conquest  and  pacification  which 
have  become  legendary.  The  usurper,  Askia  Kaghou,  having  given 
himself  up,  he  and  his  retinue  were  crushed  (by  order  of  the  pasha), 
by  the  fall  of  the  house  in  which  they  were  imprisoned.  Eighty- 
three  members  of  the  royal  house  suffered  death  in  various  ways, 
some  being  beheaded,  while  others  were  drowned  or  crucified. 

Timbuctoo,  which  had  rebelled  against  the  harsh  treatment 
of  the  garrison,  was  cruelly  punished.  Two  of  its  chief  personages 
were  mutilated  by  having  their  hands  and  feet  cut  off,  and  were 
then  left  to  die.  Many  were  massacred,  and  all  the  learned  men, 
those  marabuts  who  had  been  the  pride  of  the  great  city,  were 
imprisoned  or  taken  to  Morocco,  from  whence  very  few  returned. 

With  the  fall  of  the  Songhois  many  of  their  conquered  pro- 
vinces revolted,  pillaging  and  destroying  in  the  south  and  east  of 
the  empire.  Half  the  kingdom  fell  a  prey  to  anarchy.  Foulbes, 
Touaregs  and  Bambarras  distinguished  themselves  in  this  capacity. 
Moorish  columns,  aided  by  the  kaids,  overran  Baghena,  Diarka, 
Jenne,  and  the  countries  of  the  Upper  Niger,  ravaging  as  they 
went. 

At  the  same  time,  the  pasha  Mahmoud  was  similarly  occupied 
in  the  other  extremity  of  the  kingdom,  in  Houmbouri  and  Dandi, 
where  a  few  Songhois  had  taken  refuge  with  Askia  Noe. 

In  1595  the  conquest  was  complete,  and  the  Moors,  realising 
that  the  Niger  was  the  key  to  the  Sudan,  fortified  its  course  from 
east  to  west,  garrisoning  Jenne,  Tindirma,  Timbuctoo,  Bamba, 
Gao,  and  Koulani  in  the  extreme  south-east.  Each  of  these  forts 
was  placed  under  the  command  of  a  kaid. 

The  governor  of  the  colony  took  the  title  of  pasha.  He  was 
nominated  by  the  sultan,  sent  from  Morocco,  and  exercised  the  civil 
power  only.  The  chief  command  of  the  troops  devolved  upon  a 
kaid,  and  there  was  also  a  hakim,  or  kahia,  who  filled  the  offices 

K 


130  TIMBUCTOO 

of  treasurer  and  prime  minister.  The  sultan  further  instituted 
two  emirs,  who  were  comptrollers  for  the  crown,  and  resided,  the 
one  at  Timbuctoo,  and  the  other  at  Jenne.  These  two  towns, 
with  Gao,  were  the  great  centres  of  occupation,  Jenne  and  Gao 
finally  ceding  the  position  of  capital  to  Timbuctoo.  The  latter 
town,  situated  on  the  high-road  to  Morocco,  was  the  residence  of 
the  governor ;  the  greater  part  of  the  troops  were  quartered  in 
it,  while  reinforcements  arrived  at  and  expeditions  started  from 
there. 

This  represents  the  Moorish  side  of  the  colony,  but  it  still 
preserved  a  native  one.  Mahmoud,  after  establishing  the  pres- 
tige of  the  conquerors  by  the  cruelties  we  have  just  witnessed, 
soon  realised  that  the  administration  of  the  country  would  be 
impossible  if  he  destroyed  the  whole  of  its  organisation.  Some 
members  of  the  royal  family  had  joined  him  since  the  invasion,  and 
he  distinguished  one  among  them,  Askia  Soleiman,  by  making 
him  king  under  his  tutelage,  and  giving  him  a  residence  at  Tim- 
buctoo. Askia  the  Great's  distribution  of  the  country  into  vice- 
royalties  and  governments  was  preserved,  the  pasha  retaining  the 
nomination  to  these  posts.  Touaregs,  Foulbes,  Songhois,  and 
feudatories  were  recruited  to  form  auxiliary  troops,  and  when  the 
musketeers  departed  on  an  expedition  they  were  accompanied  by 
native  contingents,  commanded  by  their  king,  or  viceroy,  under 
the  orders  of  the  kaid. 

For  twenty  years  the  constitution  worked  pretty  well ;  then,  in 
consequence  of  events  that  occurred  at  Morocco,  disintegration  set 
in.  El  Mansour  died  from  poisoning  in  1604.  His  successors, 
occupied  with  palace  intrigues  and  intestinal  struggles,  took  no 
further  heed  of  the  Sudan  than  to  look  for  its  convoys  of  gold, 
and  interested  themselves  little,  if  at  all,  in  what  went  on  there. 
In  1613  the  governor  of  the  Sudan  was  no  longer  nominated 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  131 

from  Morocco,  but  was  chosen  by  the  troops  from  among  their 
kaids.  Up  to  now  the  soldiers  had  been  periodically  reinforced. 
In  1605  twenty-three  thousand  Moors  had  been  sent  to  the  Niger, 
but  these  supplies  gradually  dwindled,  and  ceased  altogether  in 
1620.  The  sultan  only  manifested  his  care  and  attention  when 
some  embezzlement  was  brought  to  his  notice,  or  when  the  trans- 
ports of  gold  did  not  equal  his  expectations;  and  on  these 
occasions  he  would  give  orders  to  hang  and  drown  a  certain 
number  of  persons  interested.  For  the  rest,  he  left  the  colony  to 
disentangle  its  affairs  as  it  best  could,  which  it  occasionally  accom- 
plished by  tying  them  into  tighter  knots  than  before.  The  kaids 
deposed  one  another  and  disputed  the  title  of  pasha  among  them- 
selves, settling  their  rivalries  by  force  of  arms.  The  pasha  of 
to-day  beheaded  or  imprisoned  the  pasha  of  yesterday.  In  a 
period  of  thirty  years,  1620  to  1650,  twenty  governors  may  be 
counted.  Some  enjoyed  the  power  for  a  mere  six  or  eight  months, 
and  later  on  their  reigns  are  to  be  counted  by  weeks  and  days, 
some  by  a  day  only,  and  occasionally  there  was  no  pasha  at  all. 
In  spite  of  the  disputes  concerning  this  ephemeral  and  generally 
tragic  dignity,  its  prestige  as  a  position  was  still  enforced  among 
the  natives,  and  any  revolt  always  found  the  Moors  united 
against  it. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  this  solidarity  was  shaken. 
The  garrisons  mutinied,  and  offered  battle  to  the  troops  of  the 
pasha;  rivalries  spread  among  the  soldiers,  as  they  had  among  their 
chiefs.  They  divided  into  parties,  of  Fez,  Marrakesh,  and,  in  the 
the  south,  Moors.  These  different  elements  were  not  existing  on 
their  arrival  in  the  Sudan,  but  had  grown  up  in  the  various 
garrisons  and  the  jealousies  that  arose  among  them.  Little  by 
little  they  gained  independence  and  formed  small  governments, 
ruling  the  neighbouring  countries.  The  governor  of  Timbuctoo 


A   STREET    IN  JENNE 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  133 

retained  the  title  of  pasha,  but  it  became  a  purely  nominal  one, 
and  his  authority  was  only  recognised  in  his  own  region.  The 
single  remaining  tie  between  the  colony  and  Morocco  was  the 
tribute  to  the  sultan,  and  that  was  paid  as  irregularly  as 
possible. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  independence  of  the  Sudan  was 
complete ;  the  name  '  Moor '  had  even  ceased  to  distinguish  the 
masters  of  the  country.  The  former  conquerors  had  intermarried 
with  the  Songhois,  and  had  increased  and  multiplied  abundantly, 
their  descendants  being  called  Roumas,  after  El  Mansour^s 
musketeers,  who  had  made  such  a  terrible  impression  on  their 
first  appearance  in  the  Sudan.  The  native  organisation,  Askia's 
viceroys  and  koi's,  had  disappeared,  and  many  territories  had 
asserted  their  independence  under  the  government  of  local  chiefs. 
The  Roumas  retained  principally  those  banks  of  the  Niger  on 
which  their  forefathers  had  settled.  Each  group  only  concerned 
itself  with  its  own  region,  and  had  no  relations,  beyond  occasion- 
ally hostile  ones,  with  neighbouring  groups.  Profiting  by  all  this, 
two  elements  of  confusion  established  themselves  and  augmented 
the  general  anarchy,  viz.  the  Touaregs  and  the  Foulbes. 

The  Touaregs  were  the  first  to  exploit  the  situation.  They 
crossed  the  river,  exchanging  their  position  in  the  sands  of  the 
Sahara  for  the  opulent  plains  in  the  north  of  the  valley.  In 
1770  they  had  taken  Gao  from  the  Roumas,  and  Timbuctoo  in 
1800.  The  constant  rivalries  of  their  distinct  tribal  'divisions 
delayed  the  organisation  of  their  conquests.  It  was  not  so,  how- 
ever, with  the  Foulbes. 

Contrary  to  the  opinion  that  obtains  among  the  Europeans  of 
the  Sudan  and  Senegal,  and  is  accepted  to  this  day  by  the 
numerous  books  of  travel,  the  Foulbes  did  not  enter  the  Sudan 


134 


TIMBUCTOO 


from  the  east.  Neither  did  they  come  by  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
as  some,  identifying  them  with  the  Fellahs,  believe  :  there  is  no 
connection  between  them.  It  was  from  the  west,  from  the  Adrar, 
the  land  of  sand  extending  to  the  north  of  Senegal,  that  they 
arrived.  The  Tarik  clearly  says,  '  The  Foulbes  are  nations  of  the 
land  of  Tischitt."  They  are  connected  with  the  white  race,  as 
are  the  Touaregs,  and  like  them  are  pastoral  nomads. 

The  Foulbes  were  probably  forced  back  towards  the  Sudan 
when  the  Moors,  driven  out  from  Spain,  invaded  Adrar.  This 
exodus  towards  the  east  was  not  an  emigration,  nor  an  invasion, 
nor  a  conquest.  It  was  for  these  shepherds  and  their  flocks  a 
mere  changing  of  pasture.  A  great  number  of  them  settled 
amid  the  fertility  of  Massina,  and  it  is  there  that  we  see  a  power- 
fully organised  empire  arise  in  1813. 

Cheikou  Ahmadou,  its  founder,  not  only  ousted  the  Roumas, 


JENNE 


but  made  war  upon  the  Touaregs  and  captured  Timbuctoo  from 
them,  accomplishing  all  this  in  the  space  of  twenty  years. 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  135 

He  had  been  a  petty  chief  reigning  in  the  country  of 
Noukouna  (Massina)  under  the  name  of  Ahmadou  Lobo.  He 
spread  about  the  report  that  he  was  of  the  family  of  the  Prophet, 
one  of  his  ancestors  having  married  a  daughter  of  Mahomet ;  and 
he  was,  like  all  the  Foulbes,  a  fanatically  zealous  Mussulman.  In 
Africa,  in  the  countries  of  the  Niger  and  the  Nile,  fanaticism  can 
be  carried  to  all  lengths,  and  his  zeal  was,  in  fact,  the  origin  of 
his  fortunes.  His  history  is  sufficiently  curious  ;  for  us,  practical 
masters  of  the  Sudan,  it  is  full  of  instruction. 

An  Arabian  work,  found  at  Timbuctoo,  revealed  his  history 
to  me.  It  was  a  little  pamphlet  of  propaganda,  written  and 
disseminated  by  an  influential  marabut  at  the  instigation  of 
Cheikou  Ahmadou.  The  author  pompously  addresses  himself  to 
the  whole  of  Africa ;  '  to  the  sultans  of  Morocco,  Tunis,  and 
Algiers,  to  the  Andalusians '  (a  Moorish  tribe  which  had  sought 
shelter  in  western  Africa  after  their  expulsion  from  Spain),  6  to 
the  populations  living  near  the  great  salt  sea  (Atlantic),  and  to 
all  people  who  are  followers  of  Islam. 

4  The  twelfth  of  the  regenerating  Khalifs,  he  after  whom  the 
Mahdi  comes,  is  born.  He  is  the  Sheik,  the  Emir  of  the  Faithful, 
Ahmadou  ben  Mohammed,  who  is  risen  to  restore  the  faith  of 
the  Lord  and  to  do  battle  for  God  in  the  Sudan/ 

After  this,  it  is  necessary  to  prove  that  our  friend  is  the 
twelfth  Khalif.  4  If  I  am  asked  for  the  proof  of  this,'  says  the 
devout  marabut,  '  I  reply,  the  proof  is  to  be  found  in  the  Fatassi, 
a  history  of  our  country  written  by  that  learned  man  of  law, 
Mahmoud  Koutou  (or  Koti)/ 

The  author,  under  the  pretence  of  quotation,  now  proceeds  to 
very  neatly  relate  his  client  to  all  the  most  celebrated  Songhoi 
princes,  and  even  to  Askia  the  Great.  He  thus  serves  a  double 
purpose,  shedding  upon  the  unknown  the  prestige  of  a  popular 


136  TIMBUCTOO 

sovereign's  glory,  and  securing  the  sympathy,  if  not  the  con- 
currence, of  the  Songhois  populations.  He  dilates  at  great  length 
upon  the  renown,  goodness,  and  wisdom  of  the  great  Askia, 
details  his  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  announcing  that  he  became 
Khalif,  but  adding  that  he  was  only  the  eleventh  of  those  Khalifs 
whose  coming  had  been  foretold  by  Mahomet. 

So  far  he  is  accurate  enough  and  fairly  approximates  to  history, 
but  after  this  we  enter  the  region  of  fable,  the  mythical  facts  of 
interested  trickery.  After  recalling  the  fact  that  Askia  conversed 
with  and  became  the  friend  of  Essoyouti  at  Cairo,  the  author  of 
the  pamphlet  makes  the  famous  sheik  deliver  himself  of  the 
following  prophecy.  '  After  thee,'  he  announced  to  the  king  of 
the  Songhois,  '  the  Sudan  shall  behold  a  twelfth  Khalif,  who  will 
not  be  of  thy  family,  Askia.  A  holy  man  shall  arise,  a  priest  shall 
he  be  and  learned,  an  active  man  and  an  observer  of  the  law,  and 
he  shall  be  called  Ahmadou  ben  Mohammed,  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Ulemas  of  Sonkor,  and  shall  manifest  himself  in  the  island  of  Sibre- 
Massina.  He  shall  inherit  the  Khalifat  from  thee,  and  shall  have 
abundance  of  smiles,  moral  beauty,  and  victory,  and  he  shall  be 
established  in  all  his  designs.  Thy  greatness  shall  be  surpassed  by 
his,  for  he  will  have  studied  the  sciences,  while  thou  knowest  only 
justice,  prayer,  and  the  elements  of  the  faith.  Such  shall  be  the 
twelfth  Khalif  announced  by  Mahomet." 

No  one  but  Askia  would  have  persisted  in  the  face  of  such  very 
unpleasant  predictions,  but  (according  to  the  pamphlet)  the  great 
king  desires  to  know  more  concerning  the  successor  who  is  to  have 
no  connection  with  his  family  but  is  to  surpass  him  in  glory. 

6  Will  this  new  Khalif  find  the  faith  prospering  ? '  he  asks. 
'  No,1  the  oracular  sheik  replies.  '  He  will  find  religion  destroyed, 
but  Ahmadou  shall  be  as  a  spark  among  dry  grass.  God  shall 
give  him  the  victory  over  infidels,  and  will  prosper  all  who  aid  him. 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  137 

Those  who  see  this  Khalif  and  follow  him  shall  be  blessed  as  were 
the  followers  of  Mahomet,  and  all  who  render  obedience  unto 
him  shall  be  as  those  who  obeyed  the  Prophet. 

It  can  scarcely  be  necessary  to  explain  that  this  prophecy  is 
not  to  be  found  in  the  Fatassi,  but  was  invented  to  assist  the 
cause  of  Cheikou  Ahmadou  and  the  Foulbes.  It  is  as  well, 
however,  to  bring  the  document  to  light,  as  it  was  probably  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  Mahdi  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  was  accre- 
dited fourteen  years  ago.  It  was  thus  we  recently  saw  El  Hadj 
Omar  and  Samory  rise,  and  it  will  undoubtedly  be  in  the  cause  of 
religious  fanaticism  that  the  country  will  be  roused  to  revolt 
against  our  dominion  in  the  future. 

Our  Sudanese  possessions  are  peopled  with  divers  races 
owning  so  little  in  common  with  one  another,  that  it  would  always 
be  possible  to  bring  one  tribe  to  reason  with  the  assistance  of 
another,  on  the  condition  that  the  religious  influence,  which  alone 
could  subdue  the  jealousies  and  dissensions  of  these  different 
nations  and  unite  them  in  a  dangerous  whole,  must  be  at  once 
and  totally  crushed. 

Cheikou  Ahmadou  died  in  1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Ahmadou  Cheikou.  Even  during  the  lifetime  of  its  founder  this 
hastily  constructed  empire  had  shown  signs  of  failing,  for  the 
Foulbes,  rapacious  and  cruel  to  co-religionists  and  infidels  alike, 
were  kept  constantly  defending  their  supremacy.  So  great  was 
their  unpopularity  that  the  inhabitants  of  Timbuctoo  did  not 
hesitate  to  call  a  third  element  to  their  assistance,  and  introduced 
the  Berber  tribe  of  Kountas  from  the  south  of  Tunis  into  the 
valley  of  the  Niger. 

In  addition  to  this,  a  rival  dynasty  was  already  dawning  in  the 
regions  of  the  Upper  Niger  and  Senegal.  It  was  founded  by  a 


_7 


138  T I M  B  U  C  T  O  O 

member  of  the  Toucouleurs,  a  tribe  of  negro  and  Foulbe  half- 
breeds.  Of  insignificant  origin,  the  son  of  a  marabut,  he  too  traded 
on  a  reputation  for  holiness.  He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
and  called  himself  El  Hadj  Omar.  Like  Cheikou  Ahmadou,  he 
put  the  whole  of  the  southern  Sudan  to  fire  and  sword  under  the 
pretext  of  a  divine  mission  against  the  infidels — '  the  infidels'  being 
all  those  who  were  unwilling  to  submit  to  his  authority.  Having 
pillaged  and  destroyed  the  south,  he  turned  to  the  north  and 
west,  to  attack  the  Foulbe  empire  and  their  new  king,  Ahmadou 
Ahmadou.  A  great  battle  took  place  at  Sofara,  which  resulted 
in  a  victory  to  El  Hadj  Omar,  and  decided  the  supremacy  of  the 
valley  of  the  Niger.  Sorely  wounded,  Ahmadou  Ahmadou,  with 
a  few  faithful  spirits,  took  flight  in  canoes,  hoping  to  reach 
Timbuctoo. 

Learning  the  direction  taken  by  the  fugitives,  the  king  of  the 
Toucouleurs  commanded  him  to  be  pursued  and  taken  alive.  The 
wounded  man  would  have  offered  some  resistance  on  being  over- 
taken, but  the  last  of  the  faithful  fled  across  the  fields  leaving 
Ahmadou  alone,  face  to  face  with  El  Hadj  Omar's  people.  On 
hearing  the  order  that  had  been  given  to  them,  Ahmadou  Ahmadou 
replied,  '  I  will  not  return  to  Omar.  I  will  never  see  him  in  this 
world  again.1  He  returned  to  the  canoe,  and  taking  his  valuables 
from  it  he  placed  them  upon  the  ground.  Putting  on  a  white 
garment  he  knelt  and  made  salaam,  then,  having  finished  his 
prayer,  he  turned  to  the  Toucouleurs  and  said,  '  I  will  never  be 
Omar's  prisoner.  Fulfil  now  my  last  request,  and  do  that  which 
is  pleasing  to  God.  Kill  me,  and  all  these  things  will  I  give  to 
you  in  recompence,  and  you  shall  say  to  Omar  he  died  of  his 
wounds.' 

Thus  was  the  tale  of  the  death  of  the  last  king  of  the  Foulbes 
told  me  at  Jenne.  El  Hadj  Omar  vowed  undying  hatred  against 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN 


139 


Ahmadou's  family  and  slew  eight  of  its  members,  two  of  Ahmadou's 
nephews  alone  succeeding  in  saving  themselves.  One  of  these 
two,  Ahmadou  Abdoulay,  retreating  to  the  east  of  the  valley, 
became  a  small  chief,  and  founded  a  dynasty  that  rules  the  little 
country  of  Fiou  to  this  day. 

The  Foulbe  dynasty  was  particularly  distinguished,  from  one 


JENNE 

point  of  view,  by  its  detestation  of  Europeans.  It  was  at  the 
instigation  of  Cheikou  Ahmadou  that  Major  Laing  was  killed  on 
leaving  Timbuctoo.  Later,  in  1834,  Ahmadou  persistently  sought 
the  death  of  Earth,  who  gives  a  very  full  account  of  the  dangers 
he  escaped,  and  of  how  it  was  to  El  Backay,  the  Kounta  sheik, 
that  he  owed  his  life.  This  hatred  was  again  manifested  quite 
recently.  In  1891  a  lieutenant  of  the  marines,  M.  Spitzer,  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Ahmadou  Abdoulay,  was  very  nearly  assassinated 
in  the  capital  one  night ;  it  was  entirely  owing  to  the  swiftness 
of  his  horse  that  he  escaped.  This  kinglet,  alarmed  by  our  un- 
ceasing progress,  has  since  humbly  implored  pardon  and  paid 
tribute. 


140  TIMBUCTOO 

The  death  of  Ahmadou  Ahmadou  was  speedily  followed  by 
that  of  his  conqueror.  El  Hadj  Omar  was  scarcely  installed  in 
the  capital  of  his  foe  before  he  was  attacked  by  an  army  of 
Foulbes,  accompanied  by  a  reinforcement  of  Kountas.  The 
Toucouleur  held  out  for  several  months,  but  the  town  was  finally 
captured.  He  succeeded  in  escaping  to  the  neighbouring  moun- 
tains of  Bandiagara,  and  there  he  learned  in  his  turn  to  know 
all  the  desolation  of  defeat  which  had  been  suffered  by  Ahmadou 
Ahmadou.  His  death,  not  so  heroic  as  that  of  his  victim,  came 
about  in  the  following  manner.  Being  pursued  by  his  enemies 
he  sought  refuge  in  a  cave,  which  they  surrounded  and  blew  up 
with  gunpowder,  and  El  Hadj  Omar  perished  in  its  ruins 
(1863). 

The  Toucouleurs,  under  the  government  of  Tidiani,  a  nephew 
of  the  late  king,  still  remained  masters  of  the  north  of  the  valley. 
Tidiani  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who  was  opposed  by  his  brothers 
in  a  series  of  civil  wars  which  terminated  in  1877,  leaving  Ahma- 
dou sole  ruler. 

A  new  prophet  entered  the  scenes  about  this  time,  he  too 
massacring  and  pillaging  in  the  name  of  God.  He  was 
Samory,  that  scourge  of  the  valley  and  of  the  left  bank  of  the 
Niger. 

But  little  by  little,  under  the  directions  of  General  Borgnis- 
Desbordes,  our  forts  advanced  towards  the  great  river,  and  we 
were  installed  upon  its  banks  at  Bammaku  in  1883.  Our  gunners 
made  us  known  in  the  north  while  our  columns  pursued  Samory 
in  the  south.  Colonel  Archinard  continued  our  march  along  the 
course  of  the  Niger,  and  the  capture  of  Segu  marked  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Toucouleur  dominion  in  1892.  We  reached  Jenne  in 
1893,  and  before  the  end  of  the  same  year  the  tricolour  flag  waved 
over  Timbuctoo. 


THE    MOORS    IN    THE    SUDAN  141 

These  few  pages  of  history,  and  the  fresh  information  they 
contain,  are  not  necessary  only  to  explain  Jenne  and  its  Egyp- 
tian architecture,  they  have  another  claim  on  our  atten- 
tion. 

They  serve  to  show  that  we  have  taken  possession  of  the 
Sudan  at  an  exceptionally  favourable  moment  as  far  as  ease 
of  conquest  is  concerned.  But  they  also  show  that  we 
arrived  after  two  hundred  years  of  its  worst  misfortunes,  and 
at  a  time  singularly  unpropitious  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
country. 

The  Moors  were  the  first  cause  of  the  work  of  disintegra- 
tion, which  steadily  increased  during  the  two  centuries  of 
their  reign,  to  reach  its  maximum  in  the  present  day.  The 
history  of  this  disruption  is  a  tissue  of  accumulated  misery  and 
desolation. 

We  find  the  country  in  a  most  abnormal  political  and 
economical  position,  a  position  which  is  general,  not  localised 
and  partial.  From  north,  east,  and  south  Touaregs,  Foulbes, 
Toucouleurs  and  Kountas  have  flung  their  starveling  herds  into  this 
promised  land.  They  appear  in  the  light  of  some  monstrous 
association  eager  to  destroy  the  happy  privileges  nature  showered 
upon  these  rich  territories,  and  labouring  to  annihilate  the 
benefits  of  an  ancient  civilisation  in  the  triumph  of  their 
native  barbarism.  And  all  this  in  the  name  of  the  one  God  ! 
Cheikou  Ahmadou,  El  Hadj  Omar,  and  Samory  were  not  the 
only  devastating  prophets.  I  have  pruned  numerous  other 
fanatic  and  sanguinary  meteors  from  these  pages  who  account 
for  a  lesser  share  of  the  great  sum  of  evil. 

During  all  this  time  agriculture  was  interrupted  and  commerce 
destroyed.  The  river  was  deserted  of  its  canoes,  and  the  traffic  of 
the  caravan  became  impossible.  The  markets  were  empty,  the 


TIMBUCTOO 

population  decimated  by  slavery  and  famine,  and  entire  countries 
were  depopulated  by  emigration. 

The  negro  race  is  so  prolific,  however,  thanks  to  polygamy, 
and  the  earth  is  so  fertile,  thanks  to  the  inundations  of  the  Niger, 
that  all  these  evils  will  be  repaired  in  a  few  years  owing  to  the 
peace  and  organisation  we  have  introduced  in  the  country. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

JENNE — YESTERDAY   AND    TO-DAY 

DURING  the  miseries  of  the  three  centuries  following  upon  the 
Moorish  conquest  Gao  disappeared.  The  Touaregs  swept  through 
it,  and  left  behind  them  a  mere  fraction  of  the  grandeur  and 
civilisation,  the  customs  and  ancestral  traditions,  of  the  Songhoi 
capital.  Barth  was  fortunate  in  finding  even  the  site  of  the  city 
remaining.  A  massive  tower  (such  as  we  see  at  Timbuctoo), 
representing  both  the  ruin  of  the  grand  mosque  and  the  tomb  of 
Mohammed  Askia,  was,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  native  huts, 
ail  that  he  found  there. 

Jenne,  most  happily,  has  reached  us  nearly  intact.  So  com- 
plete is  this  town  that  we  can  trace  the  thoughts  and  life  of  the 
Songhoi  people  in  it  better  than  we  could  ever  have  done  at  Gao. 
By  what  miracle  has  it  been  preserved  ?  By  none,  but  simply  by 
the  exceptionally  privileged  position  of  the  town  and  its  surround- 
ing country.  The  land  here  marvellously  resembles  that  of 
Egypt,  and  the  emigrants  were  evidently  struck  by  the  similarity, 
realising  that  their  peculiar  qualities  would  best  thrive  in  this 
place. 

What  more  could  they  ask  than  this  vast  plain,  periodically 
inundated  by  the  united  rise  of  the  Niger  and  its  confluent  the 
Bani.  The  Kouakouru,  a  curious  and  important  channel,  connects 
these  rivers  with  Jenne.  From  July  to  November  the  stream 


143 


144 


TIMBUCTOO 


'?  of  Paris. 


flows  from  the  Bani  to  the  Niger,  for  the  four  succeeding  months 
it  flows  from  the  Niger  to  the  Bani,  and  during  the  rest  of  the 
year  it  has  no  current  at  all.  This  alternation  has  been  remarked 
by  the  natives,  and  recorded  in  the  following  na'ive  observation  : 
c  Our  country  is  watered  by  two  great  rivers  that  marry  at  Mopti. 
The  Bani  is  the  male,  and  the  Niger  is  the  female  element.  At 

first  the  Bani  fills 
the  Niger,  but 
some  time  after- 
wards the  Niger, 
grown  great,  re- 
turns its  fulness 
to  the  Bani.' 

The  scientific 
explanation  of 
this  phenomenon 
is  simple.  The 
Niger  and  the 
Bani  pursue  an 
almost  parallel  course,  and  are  enlarged  at  the  same  period 
of  the  year  by  the  same  rains.  The  course  of  the  Niger  is 
impeded,  however,  by  great  natural  dams,  and  it  has  in  addition 
to  fill  the  Pools  of  Dia  and  Bourgoo,  while  that  of  the 
Bani  is  free,  and  augments  no  reservoirs.  Inasmuch  as  the 
waters  of  the  Niger  are  more  considerable,  the  two  rivers  do 
not  overflow  at  the  same  time  of  the  year.  The  Bani  rises  first, 
and  as  it  encounters  no  obstacle,  and  suffers  no  diminution,  it  can 
by  means  of  the  Kouakouru,  transfer  its  superabundance  to  the 
Niger.  The  larger  river  attains  its  fullest  height  later  on,  and  it 
is  then  the  Niger  that  flows  into  its  diminished  confluent.  The 
immense  plain  is  flooded  from  September  to  October,  and  during 


MAP   OF  JENNERI 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY     145 

this  period  the  waters  of  the  Bani  are  at  their  highest.  This  is 
not  the  case  with  the  Niger,  but  its  mass  is  nevertheless  greatly 
augmented,  and  forms  a  barrier  against  the  rapid  currents  of  the 
Bani  at  Mopti.  The  level  of  the  latter,  owing  to  this  dam  of 
water,  begins  to  rise.  The  Pool  of  Kouakouru  and  the  various 
channels  rise  also,  and  the  surrounding  country,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  protective  dykes,  is  flooded.  At  this  period  the 
appearance  of  the  region  closely  resembles  that  of  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  in  times  of  inundation.  The  villages  of  the  Songhoi 
agriculturist  emerge  from  the  sheet  of  water  like  those  of  the 
Fellahs.  They  are  built  of  the  same  light  grey  clay  upon  mounds 
more  or  less  artificial,  and  are  interspersed  with  the  same  feathery 
tufts  of  palm-trees.  The  roads  and  the  banks  of  river,  channels, 
and  pools  have  entirely  disappeared,  canoes  being  the  only  means 
of  communication  remaining  to  the  villagers.  The  great  plain 
has  become  a  great  sea  strewn  with  grey  islands  crested  with 
green. 

The  waters  subside  in  November,  and  rice  (the  principal  cereal 
of  this  region),  having  been  planted  in  the  first  rains,  is  then 
harvested.  The  soil  being  moist  and  easily  worked,  a  second 
harvest  of  millet  or  maize  is  prepared.  The  wonderful  fertility  of 
the  grouud  is  such  that  two  closely  consecutive  harvests  may  be 
obtained  from  it. 

'Fortune  has  showered  its  gifts  upon  Jenneri,1  says  the  old 
chronicle ;  '  its  markets  are  held  every  day  of  the  week,  and  its 
populations  are  very  numerous.  Its  seven  thousand  villages  are 
so  near  to  one  another  that  the  chief  of  Jenne  has  no  need  of 
messengers.  If  he  wishes  to  send  a  command  to  Lake  Debo,  for 
instance,  it  is  cried  from  the  gate  of  the  town,  and  repeated  from 
village  to  village,  by  which  means  it  reaches  its  destination  almost 
instantly." 

L 


146 


TIMBUCTOO 


The  meeting  of  many  channels  in  this  golden  land  severs  an 
island  from  the  plain,  and  that  island  is  Jenne. 

Was  it  chance,  or  was  it  intention  resulting  from  inquiry,  that 
drew  the  first  Songhois  to  establish  here  the  frontier  town  of 
their  empire?  It  matters  very  little;  inspiration  or  choice  was 
equally  remarkable. 

The  position  was  impregnable.     If  it  were  attacked  in  the  fall 


THE    ISLAND   AND   TOWN    OF  JENNE 

of  the  rivers,  when  its  girdle  of  waters  was  fordable  in  parts,  its 
banks  (from  twenty  to  sixteen  feet  high),  crowned  by  a  ten-foot 
wall,  still  presented  an  inaccessible  front.  In  the  floods  the  enemy 
would  have  required  special  apparatus  and  instruments  of  war 
which  were  unknown  in  those  days.  To  starve  it  into  capitulation 
would  have  been  the  work  of  at  least  two  years  ;  and  it  would 
have  needed  a  formidable  army  to  blockade  both  land  and  water, 
for  Jenne  is  defended  by  its  channels,  pools,  and  floods  as  much  as 
by  its  walls. 

Its  inhabitants  do  not  forget  to  tell   you  that  Jenne,  alone 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY     147 

among  all  the  cities  of  the  Sudan,  was  never  taken,  destroyed, 
nor  pillaged.  The  Tarik  confirms  this  assertion.  When  Gao 
and  the  rest  of  the  Songhoi  empire  became  the  tributaries  and 
vassals  of  the  powerful  kingdom  of  the  Mali,  Jenne  and  its  people 
remained  independent.  '  There  were  many  battles,  nearly  a 
hundred,  and  the  people  of  Jenne  were  always  victorious.  After 
the  last  defeat  the  Malinkas  said,  "We  will  come  again";  but  in 
this  year  (1664)  in  which  I  write,  the  hundredth  battle  has  not 
been  fought,  and  the  Malinkas  have  not  returned.'' 

Proud  of  its  wealth  and  conscious  of  its  power,  was  it  at  the 
height  of  the  Mali  supremacy  that  Jenne  broke  loose  from  the 
links  binding  it  to  the  decadent  Songhoi  empire,  and  asserted  its 
independence  ?  Most  probably  it  was,  inasmuch  as,  somewhere 
about  that  time  (fourteenth  century),  the  army  of  Mossi  took 
Timbuctoo,  and  separated  Jenne  completely  and  effectively  from 
the  rest  of  the  empire.  When  Sunni  Ali  restored  the  power  of 
the  Songhois,  his  longest  and  most  obstinately  opposed  campaign 
was  directed  against  these  people.  He  invested  the  town,  and, 
according  to  some,  he  devoted  seven  years,  seven  months,  and 
seven  days  to  the  siege ;  others  allow  only  four  years.  However 
that  may  be,  his  entire  army  was  collected  in  the  country  for  so 
long  a  period  that  his  soldiers  turned  farmers.  Jenne  being 
suddenly  threatened  with  famine,  the  chief  of  the  town  proposed 
peace,  and  Sunni  Ali,  wearied  out  on  his  side,  hastened  to  accord 
the  most  honourable  terms.  So  far  from  humiliating  it  in  the 
day  of  its  capitulation,  he  seated  his  former  enemy  on  his  right 
hand,  married  his  mother,  and,  most  important  of  all  as  far  as  we 
are  concerned,  he  respected  the  town. 

Thus  returned  to  the  bosom  of  the  Songhoi  empire,  Jenne 
supported  her  lot  with  resignation.  In  the  Moorish  conquest  she 
compounded  with  the  victors,  as  she  did  later  with  the  Foulbes, 


148  TIMBUCTOO 

and  again  a  hundred  years  after  with  the  Toucouleurs.  She  would 
have  spontaneously  opened  her  gates  to  Colonel  Archinard  had  it 
not  been  for  Alpha  Moussa,  the  commander  of  the  Toucouleur 
garrison. 

Jenne  possesses  another  advantage  in  its  insular  position,  from 
an  archaeological  point  of  view.  The  town,  being  built  in  a 
comparatively  limited  space,  could  not  invite  the  settlement  of 
foreign  elements  in  any  numbers  sufficient  to  influence  her  appear- 
ance and  customs.  In  another  situation  the  city  would  have 
enlarged  into  suburbs,  which,  being  incorporated  with  the  town, 
would,  by  degrees,  have  modified  its  earlier  aspect,  as  was 
evidently  the  case  at  Gao.  But  Jenne  in  her  island  has  remained 
as  completely  herself  as  if  she  had  been  enclosed  in  a  tower  of 
ivory. 

We  know  that  the  palaces  and  temples  of  the  Pharaohs  were 
raised  by  blows  of  the  lash,  and  the  fathers  of  the  Songhois  pro- 
bably laboured  under  them.  The  builders  of  these  edifices  were 
themselves  content  with  modest  earthen  dwellings;  and  if  the 
construction  of  houses  in  the  new  country  had  been  a  matter  of 
quarrying  and  shaping  blocks  of  stone,  they  would  have  been 
satisfied  with  the  primitive  native  hut,  and  I  should  not  have  seen 
a  city  of  the  Pharaohs  existing  to  this  day.  Fortunately  the 
Songhois  discovered  a  suitable  material  for  the  building  of  their 
town,  which  was  neither  the  granite  nor  sandstone  of  Egyptian 
monuments,  but  was  merely  a  clay,  plentifully  found  in  the  island 
and  its  neighbourhood.  Humble  as  it  was,  to  these  new-comers 
it  must  have  been  inestimably  precious,  since  it  replaced  that  mud 
which  the  negro  is  obliged  to  solidify  by  mixing  with  gravel, 
manure,  or  any  filth  that  comes  to  hand  before  he  can  build  witli 
it.  It  was  not  the  wretched  banco  that  makes  Segu  so  unhealthy 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY     149 

when  the  deluges  of  the  winter  season  soak  into  the  infected 
sponges  that  represent  its  houses,  but  was  a  good  stiff  clay,  solid, 
resisting,  and  wholesome. 

They  were  enabled  to  make  regular  bricks  from  it,  flat,  long, 


BRICK-MAKING 


and  rounded  at  the  ends  like  those  of  ancient  Egypt.  Except  in 
the  Songhoi  countries,  the  negro  does  not  proceed  thus,  but  is 
content  to  fashion  his  banco  into  irregular  balls  as  he  uses  them. 
These  bricks,  being  baked  by  the  fierce  Sudanese  sun,  are  set  in 
the  walls  with  mortar,  and  finally  receive  a  special  rough-casting. 
Dwellings  thus  constructed  are  of  great  durability,  and  have  all 
the  appearance  of  being  cut  from  one  enormous  block  of  stone. 
They  defy  the  heaviest  tornadoes  of  rain  and  wind  in  an  astonish- 
ing manner,  and  with  some  repairing,  which  consists  entirely  of 
renewed  rough-casting,  they  last  for  centuries. 

These  clay  bricks  are  admirably  suited  to  the  massive  and 


150  TIMBUCTOO 

simple  lines  of  Egyptian  architecture,  and  the  Songhois  could 
build  on  as  large  a  scale  with  them  as  could  the  Pharaohs  with 
their  great  blocks  of  stone.  Owing  to  their  being  enabled  to  work 
quickly  and  easily  with  this  clay,  the  town  could  be  begun  and 
completed  while  the  memory  of  their  native  country  was  still 
vividly  before  them. 

Above  all,  the  houses  of  Jenne  display  that  essenjtial  charac- 
teristic of  Egyptian  art — the  pyramidal  form,  which  represented 
solidity  to  those  ancient  architects.  The  walls  of  the  oldest 
constructions  have  a  slight  inward  inclination,  and  possess  no 
windows,  or  only  the  roughest  sketch  of  them.  Light  and  air 
enter  through  openings  cut  in  the  ceiling  or  roof.  In  all  the 
negro  habitations  the  roofs  are  rounded  to  carry  off  the  terrible 
deluges  of  winter,  but  here  they  are  flat,  like  those  of  the  valley  of 
the  Nile,  where  rain  is  scarce.  The  Songhois  knew  no  more  how 
to  construct  an  arch  than  did  the  Egyptians.  The  summits  of 
their  dwellings  are  ornamented  by  those  triangular  battlements 
which  may  be  seen  on  the  palaces  of  Rameses  Meiamoun.  The 
pylon,  which  is  another  characteristic  of  Egyptian  architecture, 
gives  access  to  the  dwellings  of  Jenne,  and  forms,  too,  a  motive  of 
decoration,  the  facades  of  the  houses  being  adorned  with  great 
buttresses  of  pylonic  form.  You  would  suppose  these  buttresses 
were  intended  to  give  additional  support  to  the  edifice,  but  inter- 
rogation of  the  local  architects  convinces  you  that  they  are  merely 
ornamental  adjuncts.  Moreover,  they  are  only  to  be  found  in  the 
houses  of  the  wealthy,  though  the  poorer  dwellings  are  no  less 
solidly  constructed.  On  certain  buildings  two  of  these  pylons  are 
united  at  their  summit  by  a  projecting  plinth,  recalling  the  ancient 
propylon.  In  short,  the  effect  of  the  whole,  its  harmonious  pro- 
portions, the  symmetrical  distribution  of  its  ornamental  motives, 
and  its  massiveness,  unmistakably  proclaim  the  art  of  Egypt. 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      151 

If  we  refer  to  the  antique  bas-reliefs  which  reproduce  the 
principal  features  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  habitations,  and  to  the 
works  of  the  orientalists,  we  shall  find  they  agree  in  every  par- 
ticular with  the  buildings  of  Jenne.  'The  private  houses  were 
simple,  and  were  not  constructed  of  stone  nor  granite,  as  were  the 
temples  and  palaces,  but  of  rough  bricks.  The  walls  were 


plastered  within  and  without,  and  enclosed  a  suite  of  rooms  which 
were  not  uniformly  disposed,  but  were  divided  according  to  the 
taste  of  the  proprietor.  They  consisted  of  a  ground  floor  and  a 
second  floor  surmounted  by  a  terrace.  The  approaches  to  the 
wealthiest  houses  were  adorned  with  pylons  and  obelisks.  The 
summits  and  angles  of  the  clay  walls  were  finished  by  a  kind  of 
framework  of  reeds  held  together  by  transverse  bands.  The  roof 
was  flat,  and  formed  by  placing  planks  across  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  house  ;  branches  and  rushes  were  strewn  upon  them, 


152  TIMBUCTOO 

and  the  whole  was  covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  earth  reduced  to  the 
consistency  of  mud.  This  covering  slightly  projected  from  all 
sides  of  the  wall.1 

The  same  methods  of  construction  are  pursued  in  the  buildings 
of  Jenne  ;  all  these  details  are  to  be  found,  with  others  that  are 
veritably  stupefying  when  seen  in  the  heart  of  a  negro  country.  A 
system  of  baked  pipes  is  established  in  every  dwelling  to  carry 
away  the  household  water,  and  latrines,  with  perfectly  constructed 
drainage,  are  established  on  all  the  terraces. 

The  survival,  through  all  those  ages,  of  this  method  of  building 
is  due,  not  only  to  the  fact  that  the  town  has  never  been  destroyed, 
but  also  to  the  great  durability  of  the  houses.  I  was  shown  some 
which  were  three  or  four  hundred  years  old,  their  age  being  proved 
by  the  fact  that  their  ground  floors  were  about  three  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  street  outside.  Centuries  of  layers  have  raised 
these  roads  as  they  have  those  of  Jerusalem,  which  stands  to-day 
fourteen  or  sixteen  feet  above  its  original  level.  Successive 
generations  always  possessed,  therefore,  some  models  of  ancient 
times,  and  their  types  have  been  handed  down  to  the  present  day. 
The  great  pent-houses  with  which  some  are  supplied  form  their 
chief  digression.  This  addition  to  the  principal  doors  was  pro- 
voked by  the  torrents  of  rain  which  threatened  to  flood  the 
ground  floors.  They  are  massively  designed,  somewhat  resembling 
the  mantles  of  our  ancient  fireplaces,  and  are  in  nowise  out  of 
harmony  with  the  fa9ades.  One  or  two  courts  are  arranged  inside 
the  dwellings,  and  the  few  openings  for  air  and  light  in  the  latter 
are  embellished  with  slabs  of  terra-cotta,  ornamentally  designed, 
and  set  in  the  walls.  The  Moors,  who  installed  themselves  at 
Jenne  after  the  conquest,  introduced  the  use  of  windows  with 
wooden  shutters  in  the  Arabian  style,  the  only  growth  of  their 
art  they  succeeded  in  engrafting.  Moreover,  these  windows  were 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      153 

not    manufactured    in    Jenne,   but   were    imported    whole   from 
Timbuctoo. 

The  Egyptian  originality  of  the  town  must  have  been  greatly 
jeopardised  by  the  Moorish  arrival,  for  the  new-comers,  impreg- 
nated as  they  were  with  Arabian  art,  would  assuredly  attempt 
other  innovations.  Thanks  to  its  precious  clay,  however,  Jenne 
remained  unspoiled,  for  this  substance  did  not  lend  itself  to  the 
construction  of  little  columns  and  colonnades,  and  Moorish  arcades, 
nor  was  it  suitable  for  arabesques  and  all  that  slenderness  of  detail 
that  have  caused  Fez  and  Marrakesh  to  resemble  Cairo  and  Algiers. 
Some  adaptations  would  doubtless  be  attempted,  but  they  would 
crumble  away  in  the  first  rains,  and  thus  the  city  has  remained 
faithful  to  its  ancient  traditions,  preserving  through  twelve  cen- 
turies indubitable  proofs  of  its  origin. 

Although  private  houses  are  numerous,  the  type  of  monu- 
mental edifice  is  lacking.  It  did  exist,  however.  The  domicile  of 
the  governor  of  Jenne  was  of  much  greater  dimensions  than  those 
of  the  ordinary  dwelling ;  his  rank,  and  the  custom  of  maintaining 
a  numerous  retinue,  would  require  it.  His  house,  which  was  called 
the  Madou,  would  have  supplied  us  with  the  missing  example  of 
the  Songhoi  palace,  but  unfortunately  in  the  eleventh  century  an 
event  occurred  which  swept  away  this  monument.  'The  town 
remained  pagan,"  reports  the  Tarik  and  popular  tradition,  '  until 
the  fifth  century  of  the  Hegira  (1050).  At  that  period  it  followed 
the  example  of  its  chief  Koumbourou,  and  adopted  Islamism.  The 
chief  convoked  all  the  ulemas  of  the  country,  and  more  than  four 
thousand  obeyed  the  summons.  Koumbourou,  having  shaved  his 
head  in  their  presence  and  announced  his  conversion,  asked  the 
ulemas  to  address  the  following  prayer  to  God  in  favour  of  the 
town  :  '  That  any  person  who  should  arrive  there,  having  quitted 


154  TIMBUCTOO 

his  country  from  poverty  and  an  inability  to  live  in  it,  should 
receive  from  God  such  abundant  and  easy  means  of  life  that 
he  should  forget  his  native  land.  That  Jenne  should  become 
a  great  centre  of  commerce,  and  that  its  inhabitants  should 
be  overwhelmed  with  wealth.'  This  the  ulemas  did,  and 
the  prosperity  of  the  town  is  a  proof  that  God  heard  their 
prayers. 

On  becoming  a  Mussulman  Koumbourou  destroyed  his  palace 
and  built  a  mosque  upon  its  site.  He  lived  to  see  its  completion, 
.but  it  was  his  successor  who  surrounded  it  with  walls. 

The  zeal  of  the  neophyte  has  thus  robbed  us  of  the  sight 
of  an  ancient  Songhoi  palace.  The  fact  is  the  more  lamentable 
that  the  various  Sudanese  chronicles  give  no  compensating  de- 
scription of  the  building.  The  temple  that  was  built  to  the 
new  God  somewhat  attenuates  these  regrets,  however,  for  the 
grand  mosque  of  Jenne  was  long  famous  in  the  valley  of  the 
Niger,  being  considered  more  beautiful  than  the  Kasbah  of 
Mecca  itself. 

It  was  an  enormous  block,  rigidly  square,  its  sides  measuring 
one  hundred  and  eighty-three  feet  long  by  thirty-nine  feet  high. 
Besides  the  usual  pylonic  adornments,  three  groups  of  buttresses 
were  distributed  on  each  facade.  Every  group  was  composed  of 
three  deep  ridges,  possessing  a  projection  of  nine  feet  at  the  base, 
which  diminished  as  they  rose.  The  first  of  these  groups  was 
thirty-two  feet  from  the  angles  of  the  building,  and  they  were 
separated  from  one  another  by  an  interval  of  about  twenty-six 
feet.  The  walls  were  crowned  with  triangular  battlements 
separated  by  the  terminating  ridges  of  the  buttresses,  which  were 
of  similar  form,  but  greater  in  height.  The  building  was  oriented 
with  each  fa£ade  towards  one  of  the  cardinal  points,  but  the  sides 
were  not  absolutely  uniform  with  one  another. 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      155 


253  ft. 


|  Marabut 
/^lirnan  IsmaVIa 


Ali  Hajssan  Houssan 


•Mi/> 


Cou  rt 

t   -  85%  ft.  - 

Minar 

SL     of  the 

\ 

tove 

f 

\  \ 

Mosque 

LM. 

"'I" 

,.  

The  north  and  south  facades  displayed  two  rows  of  windows,1 
The  north  gave  admission  to  the  faithful  through  two  doors,  the 
south  through  one  only.  The  eastern  (which  was  the  sacred  side, 
that  looked  towards  Mecca),  was  uninterrupted  by  either  door  or 
window,  and  its  sur- 
face was  only  broken, 
by  pylonic  adorn- 
ments and  the  three 
groups  of  buttresses. 
The  western  side  was 
also  without  a  door. 

The  double  rows 
of  windows  might  lead 
one  to  suppose  that 
the  interior  of  the 
edifice  was  composed  4)mb  of  -. 

the  tyvijn  Marabuto 

of  two  stories.  It 
was  nothing  of  the 
kind  ;  they  lighted  a 
closed  gallery  which  ran  round  the  square.  Opposite  the  sacred 
eastern  side  was  a  row  of  nine  triforiums.2  Their  dimensions  were 
analogous  to  those  of  the  gallery  which  formed  the  veritable 
body  and  sanctuary  of  the  edifice.  The  interior  was  softly  gloomy, 
its  only  light  being  admitted  through  some  openings  in  the  high 
ceiling,  by  reflections  grudgingly  let  in  by  the  two  passages,  by 
some  windows  in  the  great  gallery,  and  by  the  two  doors  opening 
on  to  the  court  of  the  mosque.  This  latter  occupied  a  wide  space 

1  The  windows  form  squares  of  nineteen  inches  at  a  three-foot  interval.     The  first 
jow  is  sixteen  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  second  twenty-four  feet  or  thereabouts. 

2  Each  triforium  formed  a  gallery  of  little  less  than  six  feet  six  inches  wide  by 
thirty-two  feet  high.     The  walls  of  this  part  were  rather  more  than  two  feet  thick, 
while  the  walls  of  the  gallery  were  about  four  feet  thick. 


-Jr 


PLAN   OF   THE   OLD   MOSQUE 


156  TIMBUCTOO 

in  front  of  the  ninth  triforium,  and  measured  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  long,  by  sixty-five  wide. 

In  the  centre  of  the  building,  between  the  seventh  and  ninth 
triforiums,  rose  a  quadrangular  tower,  of  which  two  sides  measured 
twenty-six  feet  at  the  base.  Steps  were  cut  in  it,  and  it  opened 
on  to  the  terraced  roof  by  means  of  an  edicule,  from  which  a 
marabut  called  the  faithful  to  the  five  daily  prayers.  Another  of 
these  edicules  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  eastern  side. 

A  low  wall  ran  round  the  building  at  a  distance  of  sixteen 
feet  from  it,  widening  respectfully  to  sixty-five  feet  before  the 
sacred  facade,  and  forming  there  a  spacious  parade.  This  was 
the  holy  ground  in  which  the  venerated  marabuts,  together  with 
the  scholars  and  people  of  importance,  reposed  in  their  last  sleep. 
It  was  their  Pantheon,  and  this  chosen  cemetery  harmonised  with 
the  high  wall  that  looked  towards  the  Kasbah.  With  its  ridged 
buttresses  alternating  with  pylons,  and  with  no  doors  nor  windows 
to  break  its  uniform  grandeur  by  a  note  of  life,  this  eastern 
facade  gave  a  very  forcible  impression  of  a  mausoleum. 

The  mosque  was  built  on  rising  ground  in  the  south  of  the 
town.  A  great  excavation  at  its  feet  provided  the  materials  for 
its  construction,  and  served  to  further  separate  it  from  the  town, 
so  that  it  stood  out  from  the  surrounding  fortifications  and 
houses,  soaring  above  them  like  a  castle. 

Is  it  necessary  to  refer  once  more  to  -the  Egyptian  atavism 
revealed  in  its  massive  dimensions,  in  the  plan  and  symmetry  of 
its  construction  ?  Is  it  not  better  to  dwell  upon  the  fact  that  the 
only  materials  employed  by  its  architects  were  clay  and  wood,  and 
yet,  in  spite  of  that,  their  work  lasted  eight  centuries  ? 

It  still  survived  sixty  years  ago,  and  would  have  lasted  many 
centuries  longer  if  Cheikou  Ahmadou,  the  great  Foulbe  conqueror, 
had  not  commanded  its  destruction  in  1830. 


>* 


158  TIMBUCTOO 

For  a  long  time  this  command  remained  inexplicable  to  me. 
How  came  a  prince,  a  well-known  fanatic,  to  destroy  a  mosque  ? 
'Because  there  were  so  many  mosques,'  said  one.  'Because  it 
claimed  to  be  more  beautiful  than  that  of  Mecca,"  said  another, 
with  greater  probability.  Priestly  amour-propre  caused  them  to 
conceal  the  true  reason,  and  it  was  a  priestly  jealousy  that  revealed 
it  to  me. 

I  was  holding  a  seance  of  human  documents  one  day,  and 
among  its  members  were  three  marabuts ;  two  of  them  were 
natives  of  Jenne,  and  the  third  was  from  Segu.  In  this  religious 
society  I  did  not  fail  to  return  to  the  question  of  the  destruction 
of  the  mosque.  Quite  in  vain ;  the  two  natives  reiterated  the 
same  imbecile  reasons  I  had  already  heard,  while  the  third  sat 
silent,  obstinately  studying  his  sandals. 

It  did  not  occur  to  me  that  there  had  been  any  special  signifi- 
cance in  this  attitude,  until  I  saw  him  mysteriously  reappear  very 
early  next  morning.  After  rapidly  examining  my  dwelling  upon 
all  sides,  he  entered,  and  closing  the  door,  he  assumed  the  attitude 
of  the  evening  before,  saying,  '  You  asked  us  why  Cheikou 
Ahmadou  destroyed  the  old  mosque.  I  know  the  reason,  but  the 
history  of  it  is  unpleasant  to  Jenne,  and  the  marabuts  naturally 
do  not  care  to  repeat  it.  That  is  why  I  did  not  tell  it  to  you 
yesterday.  I  will  do  so  now,  and  you  shall  go  to  them,  saying,  Is 
this  true  ? ' 

Which  I  did  ;  and  the  two  marabuts  confirmed  the  story,  pre- 
tending to  have  learned  it  in  the  interval. 

Part  of  Cheikou  Ahmadou's  youth  had  been  spent  in  Jenne. 
He  was  sent  there  by  his  parents  to  acquire  learning  from  the 
numerous  marabuts  and  scholars  of  the  place.  As  his  family  was 
neither  rich  nor  powerful,  the  young  man  was  forced  to  lead  the 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      159 

life  of  a  poor  student,  and  the  alms  of  wealthy  merchants  were  his 
sole  support.  The  town  was  prosperous,  and  the  Sudan  was 
enjoying  its  last  years  of  comparative  tranquillity.  Plenty  of 
amusements  went  on  in  Jenne,  and  strangers  lived  a  joyous  life 
there,  thanks  to  the  laxity  that  prevailed  in  manners  and  matters 
of  religion. 

Young  Ahrnadou,  who,  like  most  of  the  Foulbes,  was  austere 
both  from  necessity  and  a  rigid  faith — Ahmadou,  who  was  destined 
to  take  the  title  of  Emir  of  the  True  Believers,  conceived  a  great 
horror  of  all  this  depravity.  The  special  quarters  of  the  corrup- 
tion were  none  other  than  the  precincts  of  the  old  mosque.  The 
centre  of  debauch  was  just  opposite  that  sacred  eastern  wall  which 
should  have  recalled  the  image  of  the  Kasbah  to  the  minds  of  the 
faithful,  and  dances  were  held  there  to  the  sounds  of  tom-tom 
and  bafalon.  Owing  to  its  numerous  foreign  elements,  the  town 
could  supply  the  whole  repertoire  of  the  lascivious  dances  of  the 
Sudan.  The  neighbouring  huts  sold  an  intoxicating  drink  (a 
kind  of  beer  called  dolo),  which  was  naturally  forbidden  to 
Mohammedans.  An  evening  thus  begun  often  terminated  in  low 
houses  erected  close  to  the  west  wall  of  the  mosque,  and  even 
more  frequently  the  dancers  sauntered  about  the  galleries  of  the 
mosque  itself.  Already  full  of  ambitious  plans,  Cheikou  Ahmadou 
swore  to  put  an  end  to  these  scandals  on  the  day  that  God  should 
put  the  power  in  his  hands. 

Twenty- five  years  later,  having  destroyed  the  power  of  the 
Koumas  and  taken  Timbuctoo  and  Jenne,  he  kept  his  word.  He 
also  forbade  idolatrous  strangers  to  enter  the  town,  as  he  con- 
sidered them  the  first  cause  of  the  corruption.  In  order  to  still 
further  punish  Jenne,  he  founded  a  new  capital  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Bani,  calling  it  El-Lamdou-Lillahi  (To  the  praise  of  God), 
the  Hamdallai  of  to-day.  Finally,  to  purify  the  quarter  in  which 


160  TIMBUCTOO 

the  dancing  and  drinking  had  taken  place,  he  built  the  new 
mosque,  which,  simple,  bare,  and  common-place,  marks  the  spot 
to  this  day.  When  it  was  completed  he  ordained  his  son  and 
successor,  Ahmadou  Cheikou,  his  grand  Iman,  and  then — he 
commanded  the  destruction  of  the  old  mosque  (1830). 

All  that  now  remains  of  it  is  a  heap  of  ruins,  surrounded  and 
preserved  by  their  enclosing  walls.  The  interior  of  the  edifice 
has  disappeared,  the  triforiums,  the  ceiling,  the  galleries,  and  the 
two  towers  are  totally  effaced.  The  great  walls  offered  more 
resistance  to  the  destroyers,  and  are  only  partially  broken  through. 
With  the  assistance  of  these,  and  the  memories  of  the  old  men, 
my  work  of  re-construction  was  easy  enough.  The  rows  of 
windows  are  fairly  distinguishable,  so  are  the  indented  lines  of  the 
terrace  and  the  positions  of  the  great  buttresses.  Guided  by 
these  indications  it  was  not  difficult  to  trace  the  walls  of  the 
triforiums,  the  minarets,  and  the  extent  of  the  court.  The  only 
consolation  left  for  its  destruction  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  now 
possible  to  verify  the  great  antiquity  of  the  monument.  This  is 
easily  done  by  a  method  resembling  that  of  the  woodman,  who 
determines  the  age  of  a  tree  by  the  concentric  circles  of  its  trunk. 
From  the  great  walls  of  the  facade,  whose  normal  thickness 
was  three  feet,  I  removed  a  layer  of  rough-casting  not  less  than 
thirty-five  inches  thick.  According  to  the  old  houses,  the  masons 
allowed  about  four  inches  a  century,  which  would  take  us  back 
to  the  eleventh  century,  and  this  date  would  correspond  with  that 
given  by  the  Tarik. 

The  venerated  tombs  were  the  only  things  respected  by 
Cheikou  Ahmadou,  and  they  now  form  a  cemetery,  or  rather  a 
charnel-house,  in  which  I  spent  many  hours  of  research.  I  had 
no  idea  that  I  was  in  a  place  of  tombs  and  corpses  the  first  time 
I  saw  it.  The  surface  of  the  earth  was  pierced  here  and  there  by 


M 


162 


TIMBUCTOO 


terra-cotta  pipes  similar  to  those  employed  in  the  household 
drainage  of  the  town.  Here,  planted  vertically  in  the  soil,  you 
would  take  them  for  the  chimneys  of  troglodyte  dwellings.  But 
on  looking  down  these  supposed  chimneys  you  find  them  full  of 
earth;  they  are  connected  with  subterranean  dwellings,  however, 
for  this  is  the  abode  of  the  dead,  and  these  pipes  mark  their  tombs. 
In  some  places  the  earth  had  fallen  through,  and  I  could 


THE   CEMETERY    IN    THE  MIDST   OF   THE    RUINS 

distinguish  piles  of  skeletons  that  were  only  separated  from  one 
another  by  thin  layers  of  earth.  The  dead  sleep  so  closely  to  one 
another  that  in  a  short  time  there  will  be  more  human  dust  than 
earth  in  this  little  place.  One  seldom  sees  the  living  in  this  spot, 
but  there  is  life  here,  of  a  sort,  that  is  very  intense  and  active,  and 
is  produced  by  the  dead  lying  below  the  red  tubes. 

Eagles  and  crows,  hovering  overhead,  swoop  suddenly  down 
upon  the  dogs  and  rats  that  dig  up  the  tombs.  Legions  of 
red  and  yellow  lizards  frisk  unconcernedly  about  in  this  world 
of  worms  and  insects.  Goats  and  their  kids  make  pretty  spots  of 
white  and  red  against  the  sombre  tones  of  the  ruined  walls.  They 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      163 

too  find  a  living  in  this  dead  heap  ;  the  grass  must  be  savoury  here, 
and  they  can  enjoy  such  delightful  climbs  among  these  ruins. 
But  the  kings  of  the  place  are  the  enormous  iguanas — green,  and 
large  as  crocodiles ;  the  daintiest  morsels  of  the  charnel-house  are 
for  them,  and  they  have  traced  long  passages  from  drain  to  drain. 
They  find  many  a  feast  there — corpses,  and  worms  that  they  snap 
up  with  their  long  double  tongues,  rats,  lizards,  scorpions,  and 
others.  The  ground  is  littered  with  the  remains  of  its  inhabi- 
tants :  tibias  and  shoulder-blades  here,  femurs  there,  with  occasional 
shreds  of  intestines.  There  are  no  skulls.  Is  it  possible  that  the 
animals  consider  as  inferior  that  part  which  man  values  most  ? 

All  this  is  not  in  the  least  sad  or  gloomy.  At  the  foot  of  the 
ruins,  from  town,  market,  and  crowd,  mount  the  great  sounds  of 
life.  The  sun  pours  its  floods  of  intense  light  and  gaiety  upon 
this  double  death ;  upon  those  mounds  where  the  works  of  God 
and  the  works  of  man  are  done  with,  and  are  crumbling  away 
together. 

6  Jenne  is  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  towns  of  Islam.  The 
salt  of  Thegazza  and  the  gold  of  Boundou  are  sought  there,  and 
its  inhabitants  have  acquired  great  riches.  Good  fortune  is  in  its 
soil,  and  on  account  of  this  blessed  city  men  come  to  Timbuctoo 
from  all  parts/ 

So  says  an  old  Sudanese  chronicle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
How  did  such  a  commercial  centre  come  about  ?  and  why  at 
Jenne  rather  than  any  other  town  ?  The  reason  is  to  be  found  in 
the  wealth  and  configuration  of  this  part  of  the  Sudan. 

The  wonderful  fertility  of  the  soil  yields,  as  we  know,  a  pro- 
fusion of  exchangeable  produce,  and  the  hydrographic  system, 
which  gives  such  exceptional  irrigation  to  agriculture,  also  offers 
means  of  transport  which  is  all  that  could  be  desired.  These 
great  advantages  are  not  peculiar  to  Jenne,  however,  but  are 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      165 

common  to  all  the  towns  above  and  below  her.  Moreover,  if  her 
insular  position  was  an  excellent  one  from  point  of  view  of 
security,  it  was  a  serious  drawback  where  communication  was 
concerned.  Segu  and  Sansanding  on  one  side,  and  Mopti, 
Korienza,  Sa,  and  Sarafara  on  the  other,  possessed  the  advantage 
of  being  situated  on  the  Niger  itself;  yet  Jenne  was  the  town 
that  attained  the  greatest  celebrity.  She  not  only  ranked  above 
Timbuctoo,  but  took  her  place  among  the  great  commercial  centres 
of  Islam.  And  why  ? 

Because,  among  all  the  towns  of  the  Niger,  Jenne  alone  was  a 
Songhoi  city.  Because  her  inhabitants  bore  within  them  the 
germs  of  the  great  Egyptian  civilisation.  Because,  from  the  midst 
of  the  gloom  of  barbarity  which  covered  the  whole  of  the  valley, 
Jenne  stood  out  as  the  luminous  point  in  which  the  cultured  man 
appeared.  Because  this  culture  gave  Jenne  conceptions,  and  the 
means  for  executing  them,  that  were  unknown  to  her  rivals. 

In  place  of  the  primitive  barter  between  village  and  village, 
and  market  and  market,  she  created  a  true  commerce.  Her  in- 
habitants formulated  '  business  firms,'  in  the  European  sense  of 
the  word,  which  were  provided  with  a  routine  and  staff  similar  to 
our  own.  They  established  representatives  in  important  centres 
and  opened  branches  at  Timbuctoo.  They  sent  out  travelling 
agents  who  received  so  much  per  cent,  on  the  business  they  accom- 
plished, and  were,  in  fact,  no  other  than  our  'commercial 
travellers.1  The  staff  was  composed  of  relatives  and  slaves,  or  free 
men  who  were  obliged  to  earn  their  living.  Among  their  numbers 
there  were  occasionally,  as  with  us,  certain  indelicate  members 
who  disappeared  with  the  merchandise  that  had  been  intrusted 
to  them. 

Thus  organised,  Jenne  drains  the  whole  of  the  Sudan  in 
general,  and  the  south  of  the  valley  in  particular,  through  the 


166  TIMBUCTOO 

medium  of  the  markets  of  Baramandougou,  San,  and  Bla.  The 
ground  floors  of  its  large  houses  serve  as  spacious  bonded  ware- 
houses by  means  of  which  their  merchandise  is  not  exposed  to  the 
rain  and  numerous  parasites,  as  is  the  negro's.  These  storehouses 
are  filled  with  cereals,  great  sacks  of  rice  and  millet,  jars  full 
of  honey,  blocks  of  karita  covered  with  leaves  and  bound  with 
rushes,  arachides,  spices,  onions,  cakes  of  indigo,  baskets  of  kola- 
nuts,  neta  flour,  monkey  bread  (the  fruit  of  the  baobab),  and 
bars  of  a  wonderful  iron  brought  from  Karaguana  (a  country 
near  Mossi),  packets  of  ostrich  feathers,  ivory,  virgin  gold,  civet 
musk  ;  lead  from  the  mountains  of  Hombouri  and  marble  bracelets 
from  the  same  place  (ornaments  greatly  affected  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Nigerian  countries)  ;  antimony,  used  by  the  negresses 
to  darken  the  orbits  of  their  eyes  and  increase  their  brilliancy — 
the  blonde  among  them  (for  there  are  fair  negresses)  using  it 
to  darken  their  complexions ;  native  fabrics,  fine  linen  and 
woollen  textiles,  long  white  lengths  of  stuff  from  which  the 
ample  garments  of  these  people  are  made,  pagnes  de  Segu  for 
the  women,  and  superb  large  draperies  artistically  patterned  in 
yellow,  black,  copper-colour,  and  blue.  I  must  not  forget  to 
mention  another  kind  of  -merchandise,  warehoused  in  the  same 
place  and  as  much  in  demand  as  any  of  the  preceding,  namely, 
slaves. 

There  is  no  specialisation  of  trade.  Every  one  sells  every- 
thing :  textiles,  human  flesh,  cereals,  metals,  and  spices.  These 
merchants  do  not  carry  on  their  real  trade  in  the  market — they 
merely  send  thither  agents  provided  with  a  small  stock ;  their 
true  business  is  done  in  the  penumbra  of  their  large  Egyptian 
dwellings. 

With  this  abundance  of  products,  the  means  of  assembling, 
and  shops  to  shelter  them,  there  still  remains  the  problem  of 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      167 

transport.  It  was  Jenne  that  taught  the  Sudanese  the  art  of 
commercial  navigation.  Its  boats  could  be  compared  with  the 
aboriginal  pirogue  as  little  as  the  town  could  with  a  native  city 
or  its  houses  with  the  native  huts.  The  negroes  canoe  is  a  mere 
sketch  of  a  boat,  hollowed  out  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  and  at 
the  mercy  of  the  least  of  the  Niger's  breezes.  It  can  only  carry 
the  smallest  of  cargoes,  and,  in  order  not  to  capsize  it,  the  occu- 
pants are  obliged  to  sit  motionless  as  a  Buddha  in  a  Hindu  temple 
or  practise  the  agility  of  a  Japanese  equilibrist. 

But  the  people  of  Jenne  built  regular  vessels  that  were  large 
and  steady.  The  framework  or  body  is  not  formed  of  regular 
planks  adjusted  and  nailed  to  the  keel,  as  one  would  expect, 
but  is  made  of  irregular  blocks  of  Kaicedra  ebony  or  cedar- 
wood.  These  blocks  are  pierced  with  holes,  then  juxtaposed  like 
pieces  of  Mosaic,  and  held  together  by 


BUILDING   A    LARGE   BOAT 


strong  hempen  cords ;  the  recipe  apparently  being :  Take  holes 
and  surround  them  with  rope  and  wood.  They  are  finally  made 
sufficiently  water-tight  by  means  of  straw,  tow,  and  clay ;  this 
method  of  construction  imparting  to  them  an  elasticity  that  is 
highly  desirable  in  view  of  the  frequent  groundings  encountered 
on  the  sandbanks  of  the  river. 

Not  being  limited  to  the  size  of  a  tree-trunk,  the  Songhois 
construct  Jboats  measuring  between  fifty-eight  and  sixty-five  feet 


168  TIMBUCTOO 

long  by  ten  broad,  and  able  to  carry  from  twenty  to  thirty  tons. 
To  convey  the  same  weight  by  land  would  necessitate  a  caravan 
of  a  thousand  porters,  or  two  hundred  camels  or  three  hundred 
bullocks.  Instead  of  any  one  of  these  costly  methods,  a  single 
vessel,  with  from  six  to  ten  boatmen,  is  all  that  is  required, 
which  clearly  proves  the  superiority  of  Jenne  to  the  surrounding 
country. 

Its  great  merchants  have  their  own  boats  devoted  exclusively 
to  transport.  The  less  wealthy  have  fleets  of  regular  fly-boats  at 
their  disposal,  which  carry  merchandise  and  passengers  at  a  fixed 
tariff.  Bars  of  iron,  blocks  of  karita,  jars,  anything,  in  short, 
that  water  cannot  damage,  are  stored  in  the  hold,  and  upon  these 
are  piled  sacks  of  cereals  and  the  more  delicate  merchandise.  A 
compact  mass  is  thus  obtained  which  forms  the  deck,  and  upon 
this  the  passengers  lie  or  squat,  protected  by  an  awning  from  the 
sun.  A  space  is  left  in  the  middle  of  the  hold  for  baling  out  and 
cooking  purposes.  These  fly-boats  travel  all  day,  and  only  stop 
at  sunset  for  the  evening  meal  ;  when  there  is  a  moon  the  journey 
is  resumed  as  soon  as  it  rises.  For  a  consideration  of  1500  cowries 
(2  frs.  50  c.)  you  can  go  to  Timbuctoo  (a  twenty  days'  journey), 
or  for  three  francs  you  can  send  thither  a  hundredweight  of 
goods. 

Other  towns,  such  as  Sansanding,  Korienza,  and  Sarafara, 
learned  how  to  construct  these  large  boats,  which,  wherever  they 
may  have  been  built,  are  invariably  called  '  Jenne  boats.'  Little 
by  little  an  active  commercial  movement  was  diffused  among  the 
labyrinths  of  the  Niger.  But  Jenne  still  retained  her  position 
as  metropolis,  owing  partly  to  the  superiority  of  her  inventive 
resources,  and  partly  to  her  isolation,  which  protected  her  from 
the  sudden  cataclysms  and  destructions  to  which  the  other  cities 
were  subject. 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      169 

By  means  of  her  numerous  fleets,  her  more  civilised  manners, 
progress  and  architecture  spread  throughout  the  western  valley, 
even  penetrating  to  Timbtictoo  and  the  Kong  country.  After 
leaving  Bammaku  I  found  adaptations  of  her  architecture  every- 
where :  in  the  facades  of  the  royal  dwellings  of  Segu  and  in  the 
town  gates.  All  the  mosques,  though  of  more  modest  propor- 
tions, are  built  in  the  style  of  the  old  mosque  at  Jenne. 

The  sole  point  of  contact  between  these  vast  regions  and  the 
Songhoi  world,  Jenne  had  morally  dominated  them  long  before 
they  were  actually  conquered  by  the  kings  of  her  race.  With 
this  supremacy  augmented  by  her  fabulous  wealth,  it  is  small 
wonder  that  she  was  enabled  to  hold  her  own  in  '  nearly  a  hundred 
battles '  against  the  Mali  kings,  who  were  practically  the  masters 
of  the  valley.  Her  work  of  civilisation  continued  uninterruptedly 
through  centuries.  Slowly  she  prepared  the  Western  Sudan  for 


JENNE  :  A  CORNER  OF  THE  QUAY 


170  TIMBUCTOO 

that  sudden  and  brilliant  flight  revealed  by  history  in  the  great 
century  of  the  Askias  (1500-1600). 

This  civilising  role  would  be  a  title  in  itself  to  a  place  in  the 
memories  of  mankind,  but  she  possessed  another  of  equal  import- 
ance :  she  could  claim  to  be  the  foundress  of  Timbuctoo. 

Her  commercial  attention  must  have  been  fixed  from  the  first 
upon  that  inestimable  commodity  which  the  Sudan  lacked,  viz. 
salt.  The  caravans  bringing  it  from  the  Thegazza  mines  returned 
by  the  interior,  instead  of  diverging  to  the  east  towards  the  river. 
Their  precious  burden  would  thus  be  rapidly  diffused  among  the 
wealthier  towns  (notably  Oualata),  and  but  a  costly  fraction  of  it 
would  reach  the  banks  of  the  Niger. 

Jenne  would  therefore  take  especial  pains  to  assure  a  regular 
salt-market  from  which  she  could  provide  herself  with  large 
quantities  at  a  fair  price.  This  would  naturally  lead  her  to  the 
discovery  of  the  admirable  geographical  position  of  Timbuctoo, 
which  was  situated  at  the  very  doors  of  the  Mali  people  and  on 
the  confines  of  her  frontier.  Caravans  could  go  there  direct  from 
the  mines,  and  the  merchandise  be  secured  at  first  hand;  Jenne's 
great  vessels,  her  most  valuable  auxiliaries,  would  now  enter  upon 
the  scene,  and  the  new  market  would  thus  be  established. 

Timbuctoo  (as  we  shall  see  later)  could  hardly  be  said  to 
exist  until  the  merchants  of  Jenne  settled  there,  and  brought  all 
that  the  wealth  of  the  Sudan  could  offer  to  the  indigent  starve- 
lings of  the  desert  in  exchange  for  their  loads  of  salt.  The  traders 
of  Morocco  and  Tuat  followed  in  her  train,  and  in  this  way 
Jenne,  although  she  did  not  actually  create,  undoubtedly  founded 
Timbuctoo,  for  she  was  the  means  of  transforming  the  poor 
hamlet  into  a  great  commercial  centre  of  universal  renown. 

The  Sudanese  express  this  idea  in  their  saying  :  '  Jenne  and 
Timbuctoo  are  two  halves  of  the  same  city;1  It  is,  in  fact,  a 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      171 

portion  of  Jenne  that  lies  out  there  on  the  threshold  of  the 
desert ;  her  great  merchants  have  homes  and  agents  in  the  town, 
and  during  several  months  of  the  year  they  personally  direct 
operations  there.  But  in  spite  of  this,  the  parts  played  in  the 
Sudanese  commerce  by  these  two  halves  are  in  no  way  homo- 
geneous. Jenne's  is  the  active,  preponderating,  and  most  interest- 
ing share ;  she  represents  the  producer,  the  great  merchant  who 
settles  in  the  centre  of  a  country  to  utilise  all  its  powers  and 
resources.  The  character  of  Timbuctoo,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
passive ;  she  is  the  counting-house,  the  branch,  a  mere  depot. 
Her  inhabitants  are  brokers,  intermediaries,  and  innkeepers,  and 
she  has  always  been  inferior  to  Jenne  both  in  wealth  and  com- 
mercial importance.  This  is  why  the  old  chronicle  speaks  of 
Jenne,  and  not  Timbuctoo,  as  being  one  of  the  most  considerable 
towns  of  Islam,  adding,  '  It  is  on  account  of  the  blessed  city  of 
Jenne  that  men  come  to  Timbuctoo  from  all  sides."* 

How  comes  it,  then,  that  Timbuctoo  has  acquired  notoriety 
all  over  the  world  while  Jenne  has  remained  comparatively 
unknown  ?  The  distinct  characters  of  the  two  towns  will  explain 
this  injustice.  The  caravans  of  North  Africa,  Morocco,  Tuat, 
and  Tripoli,  which  made  the  renown  of  Timbuctoo,  never  went 
beyond  that  city,  and  knew  nothing  of  the  Western  Sudan. 
They  had  no  need  to  prolong  their  journey  into  the  south  so 
long  as  Timbuctoo  offered  in  great  quantities  all  the  merchandise 
they  had  come  to  seek.  Even  if  it  had  occurred  to  the  more 
enlightened  among  them  that  they  would  obtain  these  goods  at 
cheaper  rates  in  the  country  of  their  production,  the  paths  thither 
were  encumbered  by  considerable  difficulties. 

Nature,  in  creating,  at  the  immediate  south  of  Timbuctoo,  a 
land  that  was  a  network  of  tributaries  and  channels  and  was 
periodically  submerged,  had  closed  the  doors  of  the  Sudan 


172  TIMBUCTOO 

against  the  caravans  of  northern  Africa.  Their  camels,  admir- 
ably adapted  to  the  passage  of  the  desert,  would  have  been 
totally  useless  in  such  a  country,  and  would  soon  have  perished 
from  the  excessive  moisture.  The  north,  therefore  (at  that  time 
Europe's  sole  source  of  information  concerning  the  interior), 
totally  ignored  the  Sudan  proper ;  they  only  knew,  and  could 
only  know,  Timbuctoo.  This  crushing  preponderance  is  far  from 
obtaining  in  the  Sudan,  however,  where  the  name  of  Jenne  is 
known  to  every  one,  while  Timbuctoo  is  frequently  ignored. 

The  renown  of  the  Songhoi  town  extends  to  the  Kong  country 
in  the  south,  and  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  the  west.  She  sends 
merchandise  to  the  sea-coast ;  and  when  the  first  Europeans 
trading  between  Banin  and  Cape  Palmas  asked  where  the  gold 
and  produce  offered  them  for  sale  came  from,  the  natives 
answered  '  from  Jenne."*  Her  name  was  thus  given  to  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  and,  indirectly,  to  an  English  coin,  the  guinea,  so 
called  because  the  first  pieces  were  struck  from  gold  coming 
from  there. 

Of  all  the  great  cities  of  the  Niger,  Jenne  was  the  one  to 
suffer  least  from  the  long  period  of  anarchy  that  the  history  of 
the  Sudan  has  revealed  to  us.  Signs  of  violence  are  not  visible 
at  first  sight  as  they  are  at  Nyamina  and  Sansanding.  It  was, 
nevertheless,  cruelly  used  under  the  Toucouleur  dominion.  '  We 
suffered  nothing  but  vexation  and  pillage,1  an  old  chief  told  me. 
4  El  Hadj  Omar  was  a  brigand,  and  his  sons  and  generals  have 
carried  on  his  trade.  Little  by  little  the  town  has  been  emptied 
of  its  original  inhabitants.  Thou  wilt  find  more  of  the  people 
of  Jenne  in  the  surrounding  country  than  in  the  city  itself.  It 
was  time  for  the  French  to  come.  Colonel  Archinard  has  done  very 
wisely.  When  he  came  before  our  walls  he  respected  the  merchant 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      173 


quarter,  and   bombarded  only  that  Toucouleur  citadel  which  is 
now  your  fort. 

'  I  will  not  disguise  from  thee  that,  in  spite  of  all  we  suffered 
from  the  Toucouleurs,  the  arrival  of  your  people  was  disagreeable 
to  us.  The  Toucou- 
leurs were  at  least 
Mussulmans,  and  we 
were  afraid  of  the 
dominion  of  the 
Christian.  We  had 
been  told  of  many 
misdeeds  committed 
by  you.  But  now 
we  are  very  satisfied. 
You  allow  us  to 
make  our  prayers, 
and  you  do  not 
despoil  us  as  the 
Toucouleurs  did,  nor 
do  you  force  im- 
pious practices  upon 
us,  and  make  us  eat 
and  drink  unclean 
things,  as  we  were 
told  you  would. 
When  you  have  col- 
lected the  tax  you  do  not  demand  more,  and  you  pay  for  all 
you  want.  We  can  resume  our  trades  in  safety  and  with  greater 
profit,  for  the  three  tolls  we  had  to  pay  upon  the  Niger  before 
reaching  Timbuctoo  have  been  removed.  This  is  why  the  former 
inhabitants  are  returning  to  us  from  all  sides." 


THE   CHIEF   OF  THE  TOWN   OF  JENNE 


174 


TIMBUCTOO 


In  fact,  during  my  stay  there  many  old  houses  became  re- 
inhabited  and  new  ones  were  built,  and  these  latter  afforded  me 
the  opportunity  of  observing  those  Songhoi  methods  of  construc- 
tion which  had  been  brought  from  so  far,  and  were  so  different 
from  those  I  had  hitherto  noticed  among  the  negroes.  The 
general  physiognomy  of  the  town  is  not  less  striking.  Its 
thresholds  are  no  longer  encumbered  by  sleepers  and  idlers,  nor 
are  its  streets  obstructed  by  loafers,  as  is  the  custom  elsewhere. 
A  bright  energy  and  an  unusual  gaiety  and  elasticity  of  move- 
ment are  astir  in  the  town  from  early  morning.  The  people 
hurry  busily  about,  driving  donkeys  and  carrying  burdens,  and  all 
are  working  to  attain  some  end.  I  must  admit  that  all  this 


MARKET    IN    THE    STREETS 


energy   is  only   relative.     In   Paris   or   London    I  should  call  it 
indolence,  but  in  the  Black  Continent,  under  a  blazing  sun,  it  does 


J 


176 


TIMBUCTOO 


not  do  to  be  too  particular.  The  precincts  of  the  great  merchanjb 
dwellings  are  particularly  busy,  their  doors  being  literally  besieged. 
A  crowd  of  clients,  in  the  Roman  and  commercial  sense  of  the 
word,  are  awaiting  their  turn  of  audience.  Some  fill  the  streets 

with  a  sound  of  noisy  discussion, 
while     others,     preoccupied     by 
their    affairs,    medita- 
tively crack 
and  peel 


THE   COMMERCIAL    HARBOUR 


kola-nuts.  Here  and  there  in  front  of  the  eastern  rampart,  where 
the  bank  slopes  gently  to  the  commercial  gate,  slaves  load  and  un- 
load the  vessels  which  are  incessantly  coming  and  going.  At  the 
four  cross-roads  you  see  low  straw  huts  (the  improvised  stalls  of 
the  itinerant  vendor)  looking  conspicuously  out  of  harmony  with 
the  large  houses.  A  few  women  keep  a  stall  before  their  door ; 
sometimes  they  leave  their  goods  with  piles  of  cowries  beside  them 
indicating  the  prices,  while  they  themselves  are  busy  about  the 
house.  Thus,  instead  of  confining  her  trade  to  the  market-place, 
as  is  the  case  in  other  towns,  Jenne  cries  c  Commerce  !  commerce  ! ' 
at  every  step  of  the  way. 


-J 


178 


TIMBUCTOO 


The  market  does  not  present  the  accustomed  haphazard 
appearance  of  its  negro  counterpart,  with  merchandise  strewn 
about  here,  there,  and  everywhere.  It  occupies  a  large  square  in 
the  centre  of  the  town,  and  is  regularly  intersected  with  paths 


WOMEN 
SELLING    IN    THE   STREETS 


for  the  buyers  and  raised  places  for  the  sellers.  Rows  of  shops 
border  three  of  its  sides,  and  the  fourth  opens  upon  the  Mosque, 
as  if  in  reminder  that  honesty  and  good  faith  should  preside 
over  all  its  transactions.  Sitting  surrounded  by  calabashes  and 
potteries,  the  women  sell  vegetables,  milk,  fish,  animal  butter  (salt 
or  fresh),  karita,  spices,  soap,  and  faggots  of  wood.  There  are 
three  erections  formed  by  square  posts  in  the  centre  of  the  market- 
place, with  a  shop  between  every  two  posts,  in  which  men 
sell  the  choicer  goods — native  and  European  textiles  principally, 
with  salt,  kola-nuts,  slippers,  boxes  of  matches,  mirrors,  pearls, 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY     179 

knives,  etc.  The  money-changer  is  stationed  here  also,  with  his 
black  face  showing  out  from  between  little  mountains  of  cowries. 
For  native  gold  (in  rings  like  the  moneys  of  the  Pharaohs)  and 
silver  coins,  varying  from  five-franc  pieces  to  fifty  centimes,  he 
gives  and  takes  hundreds  and  thousands  of  these  little  shells. 
Our  gold  pieces  are  not  rated,  because — well,  because  they  are 
not  very  well  known  there  just  yet. 

The  butchers1  shops  are  the  most  characteristic  and  picturesque 
of  all.  Dead  shrubs,  retaining  only  their  principal  branches,  are 
planted  before  the  posts,  and  the  joints  of  meat  are  suspended 
from  them,  while  live  sheep  await  their  turn  of  cutlets  and  chops. 
Primitive  furnaces  are  established  in  their  near  neighbourhood, 
upon  which  you  may  roast  your  purchase  free  of  charge,  if  you  buy 
your  fuel  from  the  wood-seller  next  door.  It  is  just  like  a 
London  grill-room  ;  but  instead  of  the  heavy  atmosphere  rand 


THE   GREAT    MARKET   OF  JENNE 


gloom  peculiar  to  the  taverns  of  that  city,  there  is  the  vast  sky 
for  ceiling,  the  brilliant  sun  for  light,  the  bright  and  beautiful 
decoration  of  an  ancient  Egyptian  town  for  background,  and  a 


180 


TIMBUCTOO 


THE  MONEY-CHANGER 

crowd  of  people  clothed  in  the  white  draperies  of  the  Songhois 
for  surroundings. 

Islamism  and  Arabian  civilisation  have  been  superimposed  and 
so  firmly  planted  in  these  countries  that  a  great  many  Egyptian 
manners  and  customs  have  disappeared.  The  embalming  of  the 
dead  bodies  of  their  celebrities  (one  of  the  most  marked  charac- 
teristics of  the  peoples  of  the  Nile)  is  no  longer  practised.  The 
Mohammedan  religion  considered  the  practice  impious,  but  the 
custom  survived  among  the  Songhois  for  a  long  time,  nevertheless. 
The  old  chronicles  tell  us  concerning  Ali  the  Conqueror :  '  The 
king  being  dead,  his  children  caused  him  to  be  opened  and  the 
entrails  were  taken  out  and  replaced  by  honey,  in  order  that  the 
body  should  not  become  corrupt.1  Unfortunately  their  docu- 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY     181 

ments  do  not  shed  as  much  light  upon  other  subjects.  Nothing 
recalls  the  ancient  hieroglyphic  or  demotic  characters.  It  is  true 
that  thin  pieces  of  a  very  smooth  wood  are  used  instead  of  paper 
(which  is  expensive),  to  teach  writing  to  the  school-children.  The 
Pharaohic  scribes  were  wont  to  employ  the  same  materials,  in  order 
to  economise  the  more  costly  papyrus.  The  Arabic  writing  has 
entirely  obliterated  the  other,  as  it  has  in  Egypt,  and,  for  that 
matter,  as  the  Koran  and  Arabian  jurist  have  effaced  the  native 
judicial  customs. 

But  you  have  only  to  enter  their  houses,  and  penetrate  their 
private  life,  to  find  in  manners  and  customs  many  very  char- 
acteristic indications  of  their  origin.  Their  oral  traditions, 
their  chronicles,  and  their  dwellings  all  betray  their  Nilotic 
fatherland.  The  Songhois  resemble  a  palimpsest  on  which  the 


THE   BUTCHER 


first  manuscript  is  dimly  decipherable.  Fragments  are,  and 
always  will  be,  missing,  but  the  omissions  are  those  which  it  is 
easy  to  supply. 

Among  the  favourite  divinities  of  ancient  Egypt,  the  crocodile 


182 


TIMBUCTOO 


was  especially  dear  to  the  priests  of  Thebes  and  Crocodilopolis,  and 
the  cult  is  still  to  be  found  at  Jenne  under  a  form  naturally 
attenuated.  The  town  and  its  environs  are  frequented  by 


-? 


CORNER   OF   THE    MARKET 


enormous  green  iguanas  very  similar  to  crocodiles.  In  Senegal 
and  elsewhere  the  natives  hunt  this  saurian  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh, 
which  is  very  fine  and  delicate — so  I  am  told.  The  people  of 
Jenne,  on  the  other  hand,  consider  it  sacred,  and  to  kill  it  is  to 
commit  sacrilege.  '  The  Koran  does  not  forbid  its  meat,'  replied 
the  marabuts  to  whom  I  reported  this  custom  of  the  negroes,  '  but 
we  venerate  the  iguanas  because  our  fathers  did  so.1 

The  dove,  the  oracular  bird  of  the  temple  of  Ammon,  enjoys 
similar  privileges  at  Jenne ;  nests  and  food  are  arranged  for  them 
in  the  houses,  and  they  are  never  by  any  chance  put  upon  the 
spit.  The  respect  paid  to  the  dove  by  these  people  is  known  of 
in  Nigerian  countries  other  than  Songhoi,  where  they  are  called 
4  birds  of  Jenne.1 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      183 

The  same  ready  sweetness  of  disposition  that  has  already  been 
ascribed  to  the  Egyptian  races  forms  the  psychological  basis  of  the 
Songhoi  character.  The  chronicler  of  the  Tarik,  a  man  of  the 
Sudan  but  not  of  this  race,  has  been  struck  by  this.  *  The 
characteristics  of  its  inhabitants,1  he  says, '  are  sympathy,  kindness, 
and  generosity. '  They  gave  me  an  impression  of  that  goodness 
and  spirit  of  charity  with  which  the  old  Egyptian  papyri  are  so 
strongly  imbued.  The  following  was  the  happy  altruism  of  the 
old  Jenne  merchant  who  said  to  me  (explaining  the  system  of 
their  commission  agents) :  4  We  trust  our  merchandise  to  people 
who  have  no  goods ;  they  sell  it  for  us  throughout  the  country, 
and  part  of  the  profit  is  theirs.  If  they  have  the  will  they 
can  become  merchants  in  their  turn/  And  he  concluded,  '  It  is 
a  disgrace  to  beg  here,  for  among  us  it  is  possible  for  every  one 


JENNE  : 
THE   HAIRDRESSER 


184  TIMBUCTOO 

to  earn  a  living.     However  poor  he  may  be,  a  man  has  but  to 
work  to  become  rich/ 

We  will  now  pass  to  more  commonplace  comparisons.  Con- 
trary to  Oriental  and  Arab  usage,  but  conformably  with  ancient 
Egyptian  custom,  it  is  the  men  among  the  Songhois  who  weave 
the  textiles,  and  not  the  women.  The  latter  do  the  spinning  and 
dyeing.  Moreover,  the  Nigerian  negro  knows  only  one  colour,  the 
blue  of  his  indigo,  but  the  Songhoi  uses  black,  yellow,  and  copper- 
red  vegetable  dyes.  The  ornamental  motives  employed  are 
severely  symmetrical,  the  most  frequently  used  being  that  alterna- 
tion of  dark  and  light  squares  so  often  found  in  the  hangings  and 
draperies  of  the  Egyptian  frescoes.  Among  their  finer  tissues  one 
deserves  special  attention  ;  it  is  a  luxurious  stuff,  used  for  shawls  or 
turbans,  and  woven  with  an  uneven  surface  resembling  our  honey- 
combed towelling. 

Among  the  artisans  we  can  trace  vestiges  of  a  division  into 
companies.  Masons  and  blacksmiths  alike  are  furnished  by  certain 
families,  the  trades  descending  from  father  to  son.  Both  occupa- 
tions recognise  the  supreme  authority  of  one  of  their  number, 
who  takes  his  place  among  those  personages  of  the  town  who 
deliberate  and  control  public  affairs.  Masonry  is  man's  work 
here,  while  in  the  negro  countries  it  is  the  women  who  build  the 
houses. 

While  Senegalese  and  Sudanese  lean  towards  blue  as  the  pre- 
vailing tint  of  their  garments,  the  Songhois  show  a  preference  for 
white,  like  the  Nubians  ;  and  rice,  not  millet,  is  their  staple  food. 
Their  kuss-kuss  is  not  taken  from  calabashes,  but  is  served  in  cups 
of  baked  clay  similar  in  every  point  to  those  in  the  scenes  of 
repast  depicted  upon  the  Egyptian  tombs.  The  various  forms  of 
their  numerous  potteries  also  recall  the  antique  specimens  of  the 
same  land ;  and  they  have  real  wooden  bedsteads  instead  of  the 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      185 


lump  of  earth,  covered   with    skins,  that  serves  the  negro  as  a 
place  of  repose.   .  .  . 

The  last  day  at  Jenne !     I  have  been  employed  since  morning 
in  receiving  processions  of  the  friends  I  have  slowly  gained  among 

her     inhabitants.       Oh  !     very 
slowly.     Our  first  acquaintance 
"  %k  was   not  made  without 


>vT*rr 


JENNE : 
THE    BARBER 


much  hesitation,  suspicion  even.  They  could  not  understand 
this  European,  the  first  they  had  ever  seen,  who  was  neither 
soldier  nor  trader.  My  incessant  and  entirely  unexpected  ques- 
tions bewildered  them.  They  looked  at  one  another  and  laughed 
as  the  interpreter  transmitted  them,  and  were  obviously  think- 
ing, '  What  absurd  idea  has  the  white  man  got  into  his  head  ? 
What  has  all  this  got  to  do  with  him  ? '  Then,  hearing  that  their 
most  learned  marabut  was  reading  the  Tarik  to  me,  and  that  I 


186  TIMBUCTOO 

gathered  marabuts  about  me  and  blacked  sheets  of  paper  as  I 
listened  to  them,  they  began  to  classify  me  accordingly  and  called 
me  the  '  marabiit-toubab '  (the  white  marabut),  and  the  nick-name 
soon  became  popular.  By-and-by  I  became  a  subject  of  much 
salutation  in  my  walks  abroad.  The  men  greeted  me  in  Arabian 
fashion,  with  the  right  hand  placed  first  to  the  forehead  and 
then  to  the  heart ;  the  women  with  a  gracious  movement  of 
the  left  hand  similar  to  the  military  salute.  I  did  not  deceive 
myself,  however ;  these  demonstrations  merely  expressed  much 
compassion  and  indulgence  for  a  harmless  lunatic,  an  inoffensive 
imbecile,  '  the  man  with  the  questions.1  But  when  I  could  speak 
with  some  knowledge  of  their  ancestors,  their  epopee,  and  their 
little  anecdotes  :  '  Iho,  iho '  (ah,  ah  !),  they  triumphantly  exclaimed, 
4  thou  wilt  write  a  Tarik  for  the  whites  about  the  blacks  ! '  After 
this  they  lent  me  their  books  willingly  enough,  and  opened  their 
doors  to  me,  even  introducing  me  to  the  women's  apartments. 
Thus  the  monomaniac  became,  bit  by  bit,  more  than  a  mere 
acquaintance,  and  an  indulgent  contempt  was  exchanged  for  a 
real  affection.  Their  farewell  visits  (entirely  unexpected)  revealed 
this  to  me,  and  I  discovered  that  I  too  had  a  feeling  for  some  of 
them  which  was  more  than  sympathy.  They  all  brought  some 
offering,  a  small  souvenir,  a  few  provisions,  and  little  notes  in 
Arabic,  representing  letters  of  introduction.  Kindly  wishes  for 
the  journey  were  mingled  with  affectionate  questions:  'Would  I 
come  and  see  them  again  ? '  '  Should  we  talk  together  once  more 
of  Dialliaman,  the  impious  Sunni  Ali,  and  the  unhappy  old  age  of 
Askia  the  Great  ? "  In  order  to  j  ustify  my  reputation  of  '  marabut- 
toubab,1  I  said  to  them  :  '  Yes,  we  shall  all  meet  again.  Not  here, 
but  in  a  country  where  there  are  neither  blacks  nor  whites,  in  the 
land  of  Allah,  where  you  will  be  white  like  me.''  Whereat  we  all 
laughed  together  for  the  last  time. 


JENNE— YESTERDAY    AND    TO-DAY      187 

Towards  the  end  of  the  afternoon,  as  the  hour  of  the  prayer 
that  must  be  said  at  sunset  approaches,  they  all  withdraw,  and  I 
go  up  to  the  terrace  of  my  house.  From  that  height  the  town, 
the  island,  and  the  three  channels  that  join  to  sever  Jenne  from 
the  mainland,  look  as  though  drawn  upon  a  map.  After  having 
pressed  the  hands  of  its  friendly  inhabitants,  I  wish  to  take  a 
last  look  at  this  country  which  has  so  impressed  itself  upon  my 
imagination. 

The  plain  is  scattered  with  white  dots  like  daisies,  but  they  are 
moving  daisies,  all  possessed  by  the  same  motive  and  all  drawn 
towards  the  town  as  to  the  sun.  On  the  banks  of  the  river  the 
white  dots  collect  in  groups  ;  they  are  the  people  hastening  to 
their  houses  at  the  close  of  day,  and  waiting  for  the  canoe  ferry- 
boat to  take  them  over  the  water.  Dark  spots  now  appear  in  the 
distance  making  for  the  same  point ;  they  are  troops  of  horses 
returning  from  pasture.  They  wait  for  no  ferry-boat,  but  pre- 
cipitate themselves  into  the  water  that  separates  them  from  their 
stables.  Finding  no  one  waiting  for  them  at  the  gates,  they 
gallop  through  the  town,  joyously  chasing,  kicking,  and  nibbling 
each  other.  The  streets  are  filled  with  a  delightful  uproar,  cries, 
laughter,  and  swirling  movements  of  voluminous  white  draperies 
as  the  foot-passengers  start  aside  from  the  frolicsome  animals. 
When  the  latter  have  had  their  play  out,  they  go  peaceably  home 
in  search  of  the  masters  who  have  given  themselves  no  trouble  to 
look  for  their  beasts. 

All  sounds  gradually  die  away  in  the  town.  A  marabut  has 
climbed  to  the  terrace  of  the  great  mosque,  and  cries,  'God  is 
great ! '  The  surrounding  terraces  are  peopled  with  white  forms, 
which  stand  out  against  the  summits  of  the  palm-trees  and  the 
green  of  the  baobab.  Their  backs  are  turned  to  the  purple 
splendours  of  the  dying  light,  for  their  faces  look  towards  the 


188  TIMBUCTOO 

already  darkened  east,  which  is  lighted  for  them  by  that  eternal 
light  in  which  Mecca  is  to  be  found. 

The  silence  is  harshly  broken  by  a  brazen  sound  ;  it  is  the  bugle 
from  the  fort  sounding  the  call  for  rations.  .  .  . 

The  plain  is  now  a  vast  desert,  phantasmagorically  illuminated. 
Above,  the  sky  flames  into  every  imaginable  colour,  and  the 
channels,  scarcely  visible  a  moment  ago,  blaze  into  a  reflection 
of  the  ardour  of  the  sky,  while  the  rows  of  ospreys  upon  their 
banks  look  like  necklaces  of  pink  pearls.  Then  all  the  enchant- 
ment is  overwhelmed  in  the  sudden  darkness  of  a  tropical  night. 

Farewell,  my  friends,  whose  lips  are  murmuring  prayers  un- 
known to  mine  !  Farewell,  strange  island  !  Farewell,  mother  of 
Timbuctoo,  thou  Egyptian  Jenne  to  whom  I  owe  the  unimagin- 
able joy  of  having  lived,  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  in 
a  city  of  the  Pharaohs  ! 


CHAPTER    IX 

FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO 

RE-INSTALLED  in  my  yacht-canoe,  I  followed  the  accustomed  path 
of  the  Niger  in  order  to  reach  Timbuctoo.  I  hastened  towards 
the  mysterious  city,  hoping  to  find  the  sequel  to  that  epoch  of 
civilisation  of  which  Jenne  had  accounted  for  the  first  half.  I 
longed  to  raise  completely  the  veil  which  has  hidden  the  Sudan 
from  us  for  so  long,  and  caused  us  to  look  upon  that  country  as 
the  last  refuge  of  barbarity,  which  was  in  reality  an  offshoot  of 
the  great  Egyptian  tree,  the  father  of  all  western  civilisation. 

Tara,  tara,  Bosos !  give  way,  my  brave  fellows !  What  a  life 
that  was  during  those  seven  days  !  We  journeyed  day  and  night, 
and  I  did  not  get  two  hours'  consecutive  sleep  the  whole  time.  To 
find  one's  way  across  the  three  deltas  lying  between  Jenne  and 
Timbuctoo  is  no  easy  task.  I  was  obliged  to  navigate  my  little 
craft  with  compass  in  one  hand  and  chart  in  the  other,  like  a 
captain  crossing  the  ocean.  An  ocean  this  country  veritably  is  in 
January.  When  the  floods  are  at  their  height,  it  becomes  a 
region  of  navigable  verdure,  a  labyrinth  which  extends  a  bewilder- 
ing network  of  meandering  tributaries,  creeks,  and  channels  along 
the  course  of  the  river.  My  imperfect  chart  and  hastily  recruited, 
inexperienced  crew  demanded  an  untiring  vigilance.  No  moon ! 
and  the  vague  light  of  the  stars  only  served  to  assist  our 
digressions.  One  night  in  particular  has  left  behind  it  the  memory 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO          191 

of  an  agonising  nightmare.  I  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  El 
Oual  Hadj,  where  two  branches  of  the  Niger,  joining  in  one  bed, 
form  a  small  archipelago  by  their  union.  Entering  this  seed-plot 
of  islands  in  the  pitch  darkness,  I  wandered  about  and  up  and 
down  to  such  good  purpose,  that  it  was  daylight  before  I  succeeded 
in  getting  clear  of  them.  The  entire  night  was  spent  in  wander- 
ing backwards  and  forwards  in  utter  darkness.  Every  moment  I 
thought  I  had  at  last  found  an  opening,  only  to  be  confronted  by 
another  island.  I  seemed  imprisoned  in  a  labyrinth.  .  .  .  You 
know  the  anecdote  of  the  tipsy  man  who  guided  his  staggering 
steps  by  means  of  the  railing  of  a  monument,  and  ended  by  think- 
ing he  had  been  locked  up  ?  Allowing  for  an  absence  of  wine 
and  the  presence  of  a  great  deal  too  much  water,  my  sensations 
were  precisely  similar. 

In  seven  days'  time  we  had  cleared  the  region  of  the  deltas,  an 
actual  distance  of  three  geographical  degrees ;  but,  what  with  its 
bends  and  windings,  we  had  made  at  least  311  miles  of  it.  In  the 
course  of  these  miles  I  had  watched  landscapes  from  Normandy 
and  scenes  from  Syria  unfold  before  my  moving  dwelling.  I  had 
seen  the  ports  of  Korienza,  Sarafara,  and  Dara-Salam,  which  unite 
with  Jenne  in  supplying  the  markets  of  Timbuctoo,  and  I  had 
passed,  and  met,  many  of  those  delightful  '  Jenne  boats.1  They  were 
sometimes  solitary,  sometimes  in  fleets  of  ten  or  fourteen,  accord- 
ing to  the  old-time  custom,  when  numbers  were  their  only  pro- 
tection against  the  pirates  of  the  Niger.  I  enjoyed  a  picturesque 
glimpse  of  one  of  these  little  fleets  one  evening.  The  boats  were 
anchored  in  the  shelter  of  a  small  creek,  and  the  crews  were  camp- 
ing out  round  the  great  fires  they  had  lighted  on  the  banks ;  they 
reminded  me  of  the  Phoenicians  trading  and  living  thus  upon  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Only  two  fortifications  are  set  up  on  our  route,  viz.  Sarafara 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO  193 

and  El  Oual  Hadj,  both  being  so  entirely  different  from  any  I  had 
seen  before  that  they  deserve  mention.  It  is  only  a  year  since  we 
set  foot  in  this  region  (lately  the  scene  of  Touareg  pillage  and 
exploitation),  and  it  is  easily  understood  that  these  posts  (being 
valuable  strategic  points)  are  not  simple  centres  of  surveillance  and 
administration,  but  have  retained  the  character  of  forts.  The 
gleam  of  bayonets  is  visible  at  some  distance,  and  look-outs  are 
posted  on  high  places  to  keep  watch  on  the  horizon. 

The  military  aspect  of  El  Oual  Hadj  is  particularly  marked. 
It  is  a  pioneers'  outpost,  and  was  entirely  constructed  by  a  half- 
company  of  Sudanese  tirailleurs.  On  an  artificial  hillock,  in  a 
clearing  in  the  midst  of  palm-trees,  two  rows  of  sheds  are  set  up. 
The  trees  which  were  cut  down  to  make  the  glade  formed  the  sole 
materials  used  for  their  construction.  One  row  contains  the 
whites,  officers  and  petty  officers,  and  the  other  the  blacks.  The 
embankment  is  surrounded  by  a  palisade,  clumps  of  dead  thorn 
are  scattered  about  its  slopes,  while  iron  wires  are  stretched 
across  to  guard  against  surprise.  It  has  no  walls  or  loopholes,  its 
very  rough-and-ready  intention  being  merely  to  guard  against 
surprise,  and  to  permit  the  discharge  of  volleys  of  firing.  Do  you 
care  to  know  what  the  fort  has  cost  the  nation  ?  The  formidable 
sum  of  forty-nine  francs  fifteen  centimes,  inclusive  of  an  admirable 
mirador,  from  which  the  look-out  signals  suspicious  arrivals  by 
water  or  land. 

At  some  hundreds  of  feet  from  these  fortifications,  a  solitary 
hillock  rises  from  the  banks  of  the  river.  It  is  obviously  an  arti- 
ficial eminence,  and  here  and  there  are  found  scattered  about  the 
bricks  and  stones  which  so  puzzled  Captain  Philippe,  the  con- 
structor of  El  Oual  Hadj.  The  natives,  upon  being  questioned, 
yield  the  information  that  several  similar  mounds  are  to  be 
found  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  and  a  legend  affirms  that 


194 


TIMBUCTOO 


THE  FORT  OF  EL  OUAL  HADJ 

they  were  the  dwellings,  now  fallen  into  ruins,  of  the  chiefs 
of  old. 

This  is  not  my  opinion.  I  believe  them  to  represent  the 
tombs,  and  not  the  palaces,  of  these  same  chiefs.  El  Bekri,  an 
Arab  who  visited  this  country  towards  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century,  describes  their  funerals  in  these  words  :  '  Upon  the  death 
of  a  king  these  negroes  construct  a  great  wooden  dome,  which  they 
set  up  in  the  place  appointed  to  be  his  grave.  They  then  arrange 
the  body  on  a  couch  covered  with  stuffs  and  cushions,  and  set  it 
inside  the  dome.  Beside  the  dead  they  place  his  ornaments,  arms, 
and  the  plates  and  cups  from  which  he  had  eaten  and  drunken 
during  his  lifetime.  Different  kinds  of  food  and  beverages  are 
also  placed  there,  and  they  enclose  with  the  monarch  several  of 
his  cooks  and  the  concoctors  of  royal  drinks.  The  whole  being 
covered  with  mats  and  cloths,  the  people  assemble  and  throw 
earth  upon  the  tomb  until  it  forms  a  large  hillock.  These 
negroes  sacrifice  victims  to  their  dead,  and  bring  them  intoxi- 
cating drinks  as  offerings." 

Unfortunately,  I  was  not  able  to  ascertain  if  these  mounds  still 
enclosed  their  ghastly  remains.  But  better  times  are  coming ;  and 
when  the  Touaregs  are  once  more  relegated  to  their  real  home,  the 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO  195 

desert,  I  hope  that  among  the  commanders  of  El  Oual  Hadj  one 
will  be  found  of  a  sufficiently  enterprising  turn  of  mind  to  claim 
its  secret  from  the  little  mound. 

After  Sarafara,  in  addition  to  its  varied  pictures,  the  river 
offers  the  further  interest  of  the  enaction  of  one  of  Nature's 
dramas — the  struggle  between  the  Niger  and  the  Sahara,  the 
battle  of  life  against  death.  The  rebuffs  the  giant  river  offers  to 
the  sand  are  plainly  visible.  The  blows  he  has  given  are  marked 
by  patches  of  green  meadows,  stretches  of  cultivation,  rice-fields 
and  trees ;  those  he  has  received  shine  and  quiver  in  sandy  white- 
ness under  the  brilliant  sun.  Across  the  vegetation  the  enemy 
traces  now  and  again  a  path  which  dies  abruptly  on  approaching 
the  river-banks.  The  spectator  is  warned ;  the  dominion  of  the 
waters  is  about  to  cease  and  the  kingdom  of  the  desert  is  at 
hand. 

The  Niger  weakens  as  it  draws  nearer  to  Timbuctoo,  and  in- 
stead of  pursuing  its  triumphant  progress  towards  the  north  it 
gradually  diverges  to  the  east.  The  sands  redouble  their  attack. 
Upon  the  left  bank  their  masses  grow  in  size  and  increase  in 
numbers;  and  they  follow  the  giant  watchfully,  approaching  as 
they  see  his  powers  fail. 

The  last  act  of  the  drama  takes  place  near  Timbuctoo,  where 
the  Niger,  finally  resolved  to  yield  the  north  to  the  desert,  turns 
abruptly  to  the  east  and  retires  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Chad. 
It  is  not  a  flight  but  a  retreat,  and  he  withdraws  with  all  the 
honours  of  war,  detaching  a  great  arm  to  protect  his  rear.  This 
arm,  the  Pool  of  Dai,  offers  a  last  resistance  to  the  dunes.  So 
valiantly  does  it  defend  the  retreat  of  the  river  that  we  find  it 
advancing  into  the  midst  of  the  sand,  and  its  waters  appear  under 
the  walls  of  Timbuctoo  itself. 


196 


TIMBUCTOO 


The  kingdom  of  the  sands  is  now  our  goal,  for  the  famous 
town  stands  at  its  very  gates.     The  river  may  pursue  the  dawn ; 


.(-QfBTfra/ 

?£  Mi&  W 

?&'P 


GitZtLocLtioTt 


^/TIMBUCTOO 

/I      <9^>     -  „:!$ 

liite" 


^s, 


^KsgWr,J«r 


we  will  part  from  him  here  and  direct  our  steps  towards  the  Pool 
of  Dai.  This  month  of  January  marks  the  highest  moment  of 
flood,  and  the  waters  carry  their  weeds  right  up  to  the  foot  of  the 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO 


197 


dunes.  A  vast  yellow-green  expanse  spreads  to  the  distant  fringe 
of  trees  that  indicate  terra  Jirma.  This  border  is  abruptly  broken 
as  we  advance,  and  a  sandhill  larger  and  whiter  than  any  we  have 
seen  before  is  unmasked,  dominating  the  horizon  and  arrogantly 
proclaiming  the  victory  of  the  desert.  It  has  reason  to  be  proud, 
for  directly  behind  it  lies  Timbuctoo. 

Kabara,  however,  the  landing-place  and  fort  of  Timbuctoo,  is 
not  there,  but  further  away  upon  the  horizon,  where  that  round 
dark  mass  emerges.  We  make  for  it  in  a  direct  line,  abandoning 
the  pool  to  cut  straight  across  the  navigable  green.  As  my  boat 
advances,  another  sandy  height  appears  beside  the  distant  mass, 
and  slowly  defines  itself  into  a  square  mass  of  walls.  At  one 
extremity  a  flag  is  floating  (the  fort,  doubtless),  and  at  the 
other,  clearly  cut  against  the  sky,  spread  the  sinister  arms  of  a 
tall  black  cross.  Below  this  strange  apparition  square  earthen 
houses  and  round  straw  huts  cover  the  sloping  banks.  It  is 
Kabara. 


THE    ARRIVAL   AT    KABARA 


198  TIMBUCTOO 

We  have  now  reached  a  basin  of  water  in  which  a  fleet  of 
4  Jenne  boats '  are  lying  at  anchor.  The  buzz  of  humanity  rises 
from  its  large  quay,  and  all  the  amusing  bustle  of  a  harbour  reigns 


THE   QUAYS   OF   KABARA 

there.  In  miniature  certainly.  The  port  of  Timbuctoo  is  a  mere 
toy  in  comparison  with  Havre  or  Marseilles,  but  the  first  impres- 
sion is  the  same. 

We  are  no  sooner  disembarked  than  my  attention  is  arrested 
by  two  things  which  stay  by  me  until  my  departure,  viz.  the  sand 
and  the  Touaregs.  The  sand,  because  you  have  no  sooner  set 
your  foot  on  shore  than  you  flounder  about  in  it  as  if  it  were 
a  mire,  and  it  pursues  you  everywhere,  in  the  country,  in  the 
streets,  and  in  the  houses. 

The  Touaregs  are  impressed  upon  you,  because,  though  you 
never  see  them,  everything  recalls  them.  You  notice  the  un- 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO 


199 


accustomed  luxury  of  sentinels  posted  about  the  approaches  to  the 
fort,  and  that  its  usual  garrison  of  infantry  is  supplemented  by 
cavalry  and  several  cannon.  All  are  still  on  the  alert,  although  a 
year  has  expired  since  our  occupation.  The  stern  lesson  of  the 
Bonnier  disaster  has  been  taken  to  heart,  a  lesson  which  has 
been  recently  enforced  by  the  not  less  tragic  episode  of  the 
massacre  of  the  midshipman  Aube,  at  a  place  some  few  miles 
distant  from  the  fort.  His  gunboat  was  anchored  at  the  foot  of 
the  green  mound,  and,  being  attacked  by  the  veiled  men  of  the 
desert,  he  allowed  a  rash  pursuit  of  them  to  draw  him  into  the 
midst  of  the  sands.  The  foolhardy  young  man  and  his  nineteen 
companions  now  lie  on  the  crest  of  the  hill  under  the  great  cross 
which  stretches  its  arms  towards  the  serenity  of  the  sky. 

Kabara,  like  Segu  and  Sansanding,  suffered  cruelly  under  the 


KABARA  :  THE  GRAVES  OF  THE  AUBE  EXPEDITION 

prolonged  anarchy  which  reigned  in  the  valley  of  the  Niger,  and  her 
misery  was  further  aggravated  by  the  exactions  of  the  Touaregs. 
The  town  is  in  ruins,  but  for  all  that  the  dominant  impression  is 


200  TIMBUCTOO 

not  one  of  poverty.  The  wretchedness  of  the  town  itself  is  over- 
powered by  the  life  and  movement  it  encloses.  The  quays  are 
astir  with  lively  bustle,  and  encumbered  with  bales,  jars,  and  sacks 
in  the  process  of  loading  or  unloading.  Boatmen  and  passengers 
economically  camp  out  in  parties  everywhere. 


ON    THE   QUAYS    OF    KABARA 

Through  the  streets  stream  a  perpetual  coming  and  going  of 
dock-labourers,  donkeys  and  camels,  convoys  arriving  from  Tim- 
buctoo  in  search  of  merchandise,  and  nomads  from  the  desert 
bringing  their  cattle  in  exchange  for  fresh  provisions.  These 
two  figures  may  help  to  give  precision  to  the  details  :  with 
twelve  hundred  settled  inhabitants,  the  town  contains  a  floating 
population  of  a  thousand  strangers. 

Kabara  is  not  the  only  port  of  Timbuctoo.  She  shares  the 
honour  with  two  others,  being  herself  only  able  to  play  the  part 
during  a  limited  period  (November  to  March)  of  each  year.  When 
the  waters  are  at  their  maximum  (in  January)  they  encroach  upon 
and  follow  the  course  of  two  depressions  at  the  extremity  of  the 
dune  of  Kabara,  passing  behind  it  and  penetrating  some  six  or 
eight  miles  into  the  midst  of  the  sands.  One  of  these  branches, 
the  smallest,  turns  to  the  west  and  is  navigable.  It  is  called  the 
Pool  of  Kabara,  and  they  say  that  in  years  of  unusual  inundation 


UNIVL.RiL.fTY 

OF 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO 


201 


(such  as  in  1894)  large  boats  of  thirty  tons  can  go,  by  its  means, 
right  up  to  the  gates  of  the  town.  Otherwise  their  cargoes  have 
to  be  considerably  lightened,  but,  for  six  weeks  or  so,  canoe  lighters 
ply  regularly  between  Kabara  and  Timbuctoo  by  means  of  this 
pool. 

The  level  of  the  Niger  being  considerably  lowered  in  April,  the 
great  plain  of  navigable  grass  dries  up  and  becomes  a  stretch  of 
cultivation  which  reaches  to  the  quays  of  Kabara;  and  the  town, 
ceasing  to  be  a  harbour,  becomes  an  agricultural  centre. 

From  April  to  June  the  great  boats  stop  at  Dai,  two  and  a 
half  miles  from  Kabara,  and  canoes  carry  the  cargoes  between  the 
two  places  by  means  of  a  small  canal.  Later  on,  in  July,  the 
vessels  are  stopped  at  Koriouma-Djitafa,  situated  upon  the  Niger 
itself  at  a  distance  of  six  miles  from  Kabara. 

Timbuctoo  has  therefore  three  ports,  the  inconvenience  of 
which  did  not  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  Askia  the  Great 


when  he  concentrated  his  fleet  at  Kabara.  He  it  was  who  cut  the 
canal  from  Dai  to  Kabara,  and  at  that  time  it  probably  assured 
the  permanent  circulation  of  lighters  and  made  Kabara  the  sole 
port,  Dai  and  Koriouma  being  relegated  to  the  position  of  mere 


202 


TIMBUCTOO 


places  of  trans-shipment.     The  canal  has  silted  up  now,  however, 
and  is  useless  at  the  fall  of  the  river. 


Timbuctoo  is  only  separated  from  Kabara  by  five  miles  of  over- 
land route,  and  I  could  have  reached  the  mysterious  town  a  few 
hours  after  landing  at  its  port.  But  I  was  in  need  of  rest  to 
restore  my  mental  balance  before  I  could  quietly,  sanely,  and  fully 
enjoy  the  sight  of  the  town  that  I  had  travelled  all  these  miles  to 
behold.  To  see  Timbuctoo  !  I  had  dreamed  of  it  as  a  schoolboy, 
and  now  my  dream  was  about  to  be  realised.  I  determined  to  be 
epicurean,  and  rush  into  no  rash  gluttony.  They  tell  me  I  can 

I 


THE    FORT   OF    KABARA 


see  the  town  from  the  height  of  the  fort,  but  I  will  not  go.  I  wish 
to  taste,  the  first  impression  in  its  entirety,  without  destroying  its 
bloom  by  a  bird's-eye  view. 


.FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO          203 

One  afternoon  I  bestride  a  first-rate  mule,  a  regular  walking 
arm-chair,  and  my  traps  augment  the  humps  of  several  camels. 
Three  o'clock.  A  bugle  sounds,  and  the  town  shakes  off  its  drowsi- 


THE  CONVOY 

ness.  A  medley  of  people,  donkeys  and  camels,  stream  towards 
the  little  parade  in  front  of  the  fort,  while  from  it  emerges  a 
picket  of  twenty  tirailleurs  with  rifles  on  their  shoulders. 

It  is  the  hour  of  departure  for  the  daily  convoy.  These  few 
five  miles  of  road  are  not  to  be  traversed  at  will,  as  are  the  three 
hundred  separating  Kayes  from  the  Niger.  We  are  obliged  to 
travel  under  escort  here,  for,  short  as  it  is,  the  road  is  not  safe. 
You  divine  the  reason  ?  Touaregs — always.  Only  ten  days  ago 
these  brigands  attacked  some  solitary  travellers,  and  duly  pillaged 
and  killed  them. 

6  To  the  front  for  the  Sahara ! '  The  crowd  for  Timbuctoo 
advances.  Each  one  carries  or  drives  something.  Children  worry 
unfortunate  little  asses,  which  are  so  loaded  that  only  their  ears 
are  visible,  and  they  look  for  all  the  world  like  walking  bundles. 
Men  armed  with  spears  and  guns  accompany  the  camels,  and 
women,  placidly  smoking  their  long  pipes,  are  perched  upon 


204  TIMBUCTOO 

small   donkeys,   with   their   screaming   progeny  on  the   crupper. 
The  whole  thing  has  less  the  effect  of  a  caravan  than  of  the 


emigration  of  an  armed  people  carrying  the  very  uttermost  of 
their  household  goods  with  them. 

The  borders  of  the  desert  were  a  surprise  to  me,  for  I  had 
fully  expected  to  find  them  a  sudden  expanse  of  bare,  shining 
sand.  Nature^s  moods  are  not  so  abrupt,  however  ;  she  prepares 
a  transition.  We  are  in  the  midst  of  hot,  soft  sand  certainly, 
but  it  is  not  bare.  Only  the  road,  or  rather  track,  is  of  the 
expected  shining  whiteness.  The  rest  is  covered  with  a  peculiar 
vegetation  which  is  neither  wood  nor  thicket.  It  is  a  dwarf  forest 
containing  a  rickety  growth  of  scrubby  palms,  mimosas,  and  gum 
acacias.  They  are  a  pale,  dusty  colour,  an  anaemic  green,  with 
such  trivial  branches  and  leaves  that  the  shade  they  give  is 
anaemic  too,  the  phantom  shade  of  a  phantom  forest. 

The  watercourse  which  we  meet  and  meet  again,  and  yet  a 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO 


205 


third  time,  is  equally  unexpected.  Water  in  the  desert!  It  is 
the  Pool  of  Kabara  on  its  devious  way  to  Timbuctoo.  God  be 
praised,  they  have  not  yet  made  a  bridge  across  it.  Imagine  the 
Sahara  with  bridges  !  The  water  cuts  straight  across  the  track, 
and  escort  and  escorted  have  to  ford  it,  to  the  great  joy  of  the 
spectator. 

The  water  is  fully  breast  high.  The  tirailleurs  carefully 
remove  their  uniforms,  and  the  men  take  off  their  ample  draperies  ; 
so  do  the  women,  but  they  imperturbably  retain  their  pipes. 
They  carry  their  most  precious  possessions,  arms,  clothes,  and 
goods,  on  their  heads.  It  is  now  the  turn  of  the  animals,  and 
the  donkeys  make  the  most  ridiculous  scenes.  As  soon  as  the 
water  has 'so  shallowed  that  swimming  is  unnecessary,  they  sit 
down  in  it,  apparently  bent  on  suicide.  Indescribable  barbarities 
now  take  place.  Men,  women,  and  children  fling  themselves  upon 
an  unfortunate  animal.  One  seizes  it  by  the  ears,  another  by 
the  legs,  and  a  great  many  by  the  tail  (the  lever  par  excellence 
on  these  occasions).  The  animal  calmly  allows  itself  to  be  drawn 
to  the  bank,  while  its  zealous  rescuers  charge  into  the  absent- 
minded,  and  cause  many  an  involuntary  bath. 


FORDING   THE   STREAM    ON   THE   WAY    TO    TIMBUCTOO 


206 


TIMBUCTOO 


I  pictured  a  party  of  Touaregs  arriving  in  the  midst  of  this 
hubbub.  Right  and  left  of  the  track  the  undulating  ground  and 
scrubby  thicket  could  well  mask  a  surprise,  and  equally  well  cover 
a  retreat,  the  attack  being  once  made. 

The  road  half-way  between  Kabara  and  Timbuctoo  bears  a 
sinister  reputation.  The  natives  have  given  it  the  tragic  name 
'Our*1  Oumaira'' (They  hear  not),  meaning  that  neither  at  Tim- 
buctoo nor  Kabara  can  the  cries  of  the  victims  be  heard.  The 


'OUR'  OUMAIRA' 


place  has  bitter  memories  for  us  also.     A  cross,  sister  to  the  one 
that  gloomily  dominates  Kabara,  is  set  up  in  one  of  these  valleys. 


FROM    JENNE    TO    TIMBUCTOO 


207 


A  little   leather   placard   is  nailed   to   it,  bearing  the  following 
inscription  :— 


After  reading  this  inscription  one  casts  suspicious  glances  right 
and  left  into  the  undulating  and  woody  landscape.  A  little 
prudence  is  decidedly  advisable.  This  preoccupation  is  so  increased 
by  the  uproar  of  the  picturesque  medley  of  people  crowding  round 
the  escort  like  chickens  round  a  hen,  that  the  thought  of  the 
approaching  vision  of  the  town  is  forgotten. 

At  a  given  moment,  however,  the  mass  gathered  round  the 
escort  opens  out,  the  track  rises  to  climb  a  bare  dune,  and  when 
we  have  followed  it  to  the  top — Timbuctoo  is  spread  before 
our  eyes. 


DISTANT   VIEW 


CHAPTER  X 


TIMBUCTOO  x 

AN  immense  and  brilliant  sky,  and  an  immense  and  brilliant 
stretch  of  land,  with  the  grand  outlines  of  a  town  uniting  the 
two.  A  dark  silhouette,  large  and  long,  an  image  of  grandeur  in 
immensity, — thus  appeared  the  Queen  of  the  Sudan. 

Across    the    space   everything  looks   simple   and    severe ;   the 

1  The    native    pronunciation    is    more    nearly   represented   by   the   orthography 
Tomboutou. 


OF   TIMBUCTOO 


forest  is  dwarfed  out  of  sight,  and  nothing  diminishes  the  vast 
landscape,  which  is  lighted  by  the  throbbing  glare  of  the  veritable 
sun  of  the  desert. 

Truly  she  is  enthroned  upon  the  horizon  with  the  majesty  of 
a  queen.  She  is  indeed  the  city  of  imagination,  the  Timbuctoo 
of  European  legend. 

Her  sandy  approaches  are  strewn  with  bones  and  carcasses  that 
have  been  disinterred  by  wild  beasts,  the  remains  of  the  camels, 
horses,  and  donkeys  that  have  fallen  down  and  died  in  the  last 
stages  of  the  journey.  The  cities  of  the  East  are  invariably 
encircled  by  their  bones,  and  the  roads  across  the  desert  are  lined 
by  their  bodies. 

The  details  of  the  distant  shape  grow  clearer  by  degrees.     The 


209 


210 


TIMBUCTOO 


illusion  of  walls,  produced  by  the  distinctness  with  which  the  town 
stands  out  from  the  white  sand,  disappears,  and  three  towers, 
placed  at  regular  intervals,  dominate  the  mass.  The  terraces  of 


A   STREET   AT   THE   ENTRANCE   TO   THE   TOWN 

square  houses  are  now  distinguishable,  giving  an  appearance  of 
depth  to  the  outlined  mass,  and  renewing  the  first  impression  of 
grandeur. 

Whether  you  approach  from  the  banks  of  the  Niger,  from  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic,  by  the  Moroccan  and  Arawan  routes,  or 
from  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  by  Tripoli  or  Ghadames,  the 


TIMBUCTOO 

town  presents  the  same  outlines :  fine,  long  and  deep,  and  evoking 
the  same  impression  of  grandeur  in  immensity. 

/  • 

We  have  entered  the  town,  and,  as  behind  the  scenes  of  a 
theatre,  behold  !  all  the  grandeur  has  suddenly  disappeared. 

It  is  another  scene  now,  equally  impressive,  but  on  account 
of  its  tragic  character  rather  than  its  beauty.  Instead  of  finding 
the  compact  and  well-ordered  city  which  was  promised  us  by  the 
exterior,  we  enter  a  town  that  seems  to  have  recently  passed 
through  the  successive  dramas  of  siege,  capture,  and  destruc- 
tion. 

The  foreground,  to  which  the  play  of  sun  and  shadow  had 
given  the  distant  effect  of  city  ramparts,  proves  to  be  a  mass  of 
deserted  houses.  The  roofs  have  fallen  in,  the  doors  are  gone, 
the  walls  are  broken  and  crumbling,  and  have  become  mere  heaps 
of  ruin.  Piles  of  earth,  bricks,  and  bits  of  wood  are  scattered  over 
the  open  spaces  which  were  once  the  paths  leading  to  these  defunct 
dwellings. 

Beyond  these  ruins  behold  the  market,  or  rather  one  of  the 
markets.  This  is  the  largest  of  them,  I  am  told,  and  I  begin  to 
hope  that  the  sinister  impression  left  by  the  entrance  to  the  town 
will  now  be  removed. 

The  place  is  spacious,  certainly,  but  is  this  the  great  market 
of  Timbuctoo  ?  These  women  with  little  baskets,  little  cala- 
bashes, and  little  round  mats,  selling  insignificant  little  things,  red, 
green,  white,  drab,  and  black,  spices  and  vegetables,  for  infinitely 
little  sums  of  cowries,  just  as  in  any,  no  matter  what,  little 
market  in  no  matter  what  little  town  of  the  Sudan.  Is  this  the 
universal  commerce  of  Timbuctoo  PyyWhy,  if  I  only  recall  the 
market  of  Jenne,  this  is  the  most  miserable  in  the  world.  And 
I,  who  thought  to  find  here  a  pendant  to  the  great  fairs  of  yester- 


TIMBUCTOO 

day  or  those  of  Nijni  Novgorod  of  to-day  !  I,  who  expected  to 
see  heaps  and  heaps  of  the  produce  of  Arabian  Africa,  Negraic 
Africa,  and  Europe ! 

Instead  of  obliterating  the  image  of  these  ruins,  this  spectacle 
bites  it  in  more  deeply  .A  What  is  passing  here  ?  what  has  passed 
here?  I  ask  myself  in  disconcerted  bewilderment.  The  houses 
round  the  market-place  have  the  appearance  of  being  able  to 
stand,  certainly,  and  are  even  inhabited,  but,  O  my  beautiful 
dwellings  of  Jenne,  how  far  away  you  seem  T  -Where  are  your 
imposing  forms  atad  harmonious  outlines  ?  You  would  appear 
monumental  now.  Here  are  merely  houses  of  a  kind,  things 
without  character,  height,  or  style.  Just  four  walls  and  a  flat 
roof.  If  this  mediocrity  were  only  pleasingly  clean !  But  their 
unburnt  bricks  are  worn,  crumbling,  and  cracked,  under  the  com- 
bined effects  of  rain,  wind,  and  sun.  Any  attempt  to  keep 
them  repaired  was  given  up  long  ago.  They  seem  to  have  been 
deserted  for  years  and  inhabited  again  quite  recently.  The 
bizarre  appearance  of  their  enclosing  walls  seems  to  confirm  this 
hypothesis,  for  the  breaches  in  them  have  been  hastily  stopped 
with  carelessly  adjusted  mats,  bundles  of  straw,  and  fagots  of 
brushwood. 

The  further  we  advance  the  more  the  misery  increases,  and  all 
traces  of  the  majestic  exterior  disappear.  Only  the  sky  is  the 
same,  brilliant  and  immense. 

Let  us  follow  the  road  that  buries  itself  in  the  heart  of  the 
town.  The  buildings  bordering  it  are  rather  higher  here;  they\ 
even  have  an  additional  story.  But  indulgent  as  I  am  inclined  to 
be,  I  cannot  deny  that  they  also  are  threatened  with  ruin,  and 
that  neglect  is  written  on  their  walls  in  cracks  and  crevices. 
Their  second  stories  are  still  further  advanced  in  disintegration, 
and  the  bars  of  the  little  Moorish  windows  have  fallen  away. 


TIMBUCTOO 

Only  the  doors  and  thresholds  show  any  sign  of  care  and  habita- 
tion.     The   former   are   curious,   being   very    massive,  garnished 


A   LARGE   HOUSE 


with  a  profusion  of  enormous-headed  nails,  and  bound  with  iron 
like  a  safe.  They  are  all  carefully  shut,  too,  contrary  to  the 
custom  of  negro  countries. 

Beyond  this  road  (a  comparatively  sound  spot),  the  leprous 
patches  reappear,  and  vague  bits  of  ground  (the  sites  of  houses 
which  have  been  deserted  or  destroyed),  mingle  with  poor 
hovels  enclosed  by  a  heterogeneous  collection  of  brushwood, 
mats,  and  walls.  The  general  wretchedness  is  occasionally  varied 
by  groups  of  straw  huts  with  fences  of  matting.  They  are 
clusters  of  nomad  Foulbe  dwellings  in  the  midst  of  the  debris 
of  the  town. 

f >  In  spite  of  certain  vague  imaginings,  I  had  not  expected  to 
/   find  an  Athens,  Rome,  or  Cairo  here ;  but  straw  huts !  not  many 
V    of  them,  certainly,  but—in  the  very  heart  of  the  town. 
\     Here  and  there  I  pass  a  few  healthy  islands  of  tall  houses  with 


TIMBUCTOO 


215 


studded  doors  close  shut ;  then,  more  ruins.  One  of  the  latter 
arrests  my  attention.  Although  it  is  a  lamentable  wreck,  with 
ceiling  and  roof  hanging  from  a  lacework  of  walls,  its  great  size 
indicates  some  dwelling  of  importance.  A  public  building  per- 
haps. Who  lived  here  ?  It  proved  to  be  no  ordinary  house, 
for  the  man  who  dwelt  there  was  known  all  over  Europe,  all 
over  the  world,  and  the  Queen  of  England  corresponded  with 
him.  A  man  whom  the  learned  and  the  explorers  of  every 
country  held  in  pious  memory,  BartlVs  host  and  protector,  Sheik 
el  Backay,  lived  here.  Its  crumbling  walls  have  no  other  roof  than 
the  sky.  The  family  of  one  of  his  servants  vegetates  in  a  little 
corner  of  the  courtyard,  into  which  some  seedlings  of  the' cotton- 
plant  have  thrust  their  way.  This  is  all  that  remains  of  the  once 
brilliant  life  that  held  sway  there. 


THE    STRAW    HUTS,    WITH    STRAW    ENCLOSURES 

From  one  extremity  of  the  town  to  the  other  the  same  story  is 
repeated  of  roads  ill  and  dying.     You  sink  in  their  sands  as  if  you 


TIMBUCTOO 

were  in  the  midst  of  the  desert.  A  city  in  deliquescence,  such  is 
the  town  which  the  sun  had  shown  from  afar  as  so  majestically 
great. 

Have  I  been  the  sport  of  a  mirage?  The  spectacle  was  so 
unexpected  and  absorbing  that  I  had  hitherto  paid  no  heed  to 
the  life  and  movement  stirring  among  these  ruins,  and  had  not 
noticed  their  contrast  with  the  fading  town.  But  tall  blue- 
and-white  forms  are  energetically  stirring  about  the  city,  and 
strings  of  heavily  laden  camels,  donkeys,  and  porters  encumber 
the  roads.  I  scarcely  notice  that  all  the  idioms  of  the 
Sahara,  Sudan,  and  elsewhere,  from  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Atlantic  to  Lake  Chad,  are  to  be  heard  here.  I  do  not 
distinguish,  under  white  turban  or  red  fez,  all  the  different 
types  of  the  negro  races,  —  Arab,  Berber,  Songhoi,  Mossi, 
Bambara^  Toucouleur,  Malinka,  among  the  blacks ;  and  Foulbes, 
Moors,  Touaregs,  and  Tripolitans  among  the  whites.  This 
human  amalgam  is  miserably  clad,  and  their  untidy,  ragged, 
and  dirty  coats  are  so  completely  in  harmony  with  their  back- 


TIMBUCTOO:    A   STREE1 


TIMBUCTOO 


217 


ground,  that  one  confounds  them  with  the  ruins.  The  obstinately 
closed  doors  would  lead  you  to  imagine  that  all  these  passers-by 
are  strangers  to  the  town. 


TIMBUCTOO  :  A  CORNER  OF  THE  TOWN 


The  impression  is  so  profound  that  sight  and  judgment  are 
deceived,  overthrown.  It  is  not  only  the  illusion  of  the  distant 
view,  the  vanished  mirage,  which  embitters  the  deception,  it  is  the 
destruction  of  all  that  glamour  which  surrounded  the  name  of 
Timbuctoo  in  the  mind  of  the  European.  The  disillusion  is 
complete,  for  I  know  that  the  town  has  not  been  besieged, 
pillaged,  bombarded,  nor  destroyed  since  it  was  occupied  by  our 
troops.  Our  flag  was  planted  there  some  months  back  without 


218  TIMBUCTOO 

a  shot  being  fired.     The  town  is  precisely  what  it  was  before  we 
entered  her. 

/And  this  is  the  great  Timbuctoo,  the  metropolis  of  the  Sudan 
/4nd  the  Sahara,  with  its  boasted  wealth  and  commerce.  This  is 
Timbuctoo  the  holy,  the  learned,  that  light  of  the  Niger,  of  which 
it  was  written,  '  We  shall  one  day  correct  the  texts  of  our  Greek 
and  Latin  classics  by  the  manuscripts  which  are  preserved  there.' 
And  I  have  not  even  seen  one  of  the  open-air  schools  which  were 
so  numerous  at  Jenne. 

These  ruins,  this  rubbish,  this  wreck  of  a  town,  is  this  the 
secret  of  Timbuctoo  the  Mysterious  ? 

You  can  imagine  my  perplexity  when  it  became  time  to  think 
of  a  lodging.  My  first  thought  was  naturally  to  settle  in  the 
road  and  pitch  my  tent  in  one  of  its  empty  spaces, — at  a  respectful 
and  prudent  distance  from  these  falling  houses,  be  it  understood. 
My  servant,  however,  an  old  Senegalese  tirailleur,  who  had  fought 
against  Samory,  and  who  was  afraid  of  nothing,  set  out  in  quest  of 
an  abode  while  I  continued  to  explore  the  town.  '  I  have  found  a 
house,1  he  cried  on  his  return,  and  radiantly  led  me  towards  one 
that  was  in  every  respect  as  deliquescent  as  the  rest. 

To  my  great  surprise,  however,  the  inside  did  not  harmonise 
with  its  exterior.  It  was  no  palace,  but  it  was  fresh  and  clean, 
and  in  good  condition,  truly  regal  in  contrast  with  the  outside 
sights.  I  decided  upon  it  at  once,  and  found  the  habitation  com- 
prised two  rooms,  a  vestibule,  and  an  ante-room  to  a  court,  which 
was  about  as  large  as  a  couple  of  linen  sheets.  Three  rooms  (the 
apartments  proper)  opened  from  these.  A  passage  led  to  a  court 
of  vague  locality  somewhere  at  the  back,  and  a  little  staircase  gave 
access  to  the  roof.  The  whole  was  let  for  twenty-five  francs  a 
month. 


TIMBUCTOO  219 

The  camels  grunting  at  the  door  were  immediately  unloaded, 
and  I  contemplated  my  traps  with  emotion.  A  moment  ago  I 
thought  there  was  not  a  whole  thing  in  Timbuctoo, — in  the  world 
even.  The  sight  of  my  packages  dispelled  this  nightmare.  In  a 
regular  fever  I  insisted  upon  unpacking  them  myself.  I  set  up  the 
camp-bedstead,  my  table  and  folding-chair,  my  pots  and  pans,  my 
tub  and  my  toothbrush,  and  then  I  contemplated  them  all  with  a 
childish  joy,  not  unmixed  with  tears,  for  all  these  things  were  not 
cracked,  crumbling,  and  falling  into  ruins. 

Next  morning  I  sent  round  the  letters  of  recommendation  pro- 
vided by  my  friends  in  Jcnne.  The  little  pieces  of  paper  were 
filled  with  warm  words,  and  very  soon  rows  of  slippers  on  the 
threshold  of  my  dwelling  announced  the  presence  of  numerous 
visitors  within.  My  house  was  filled  with  welcoming  presents, 
eggs,  dates,  ostrich-plumes,  hens,  chickens,  and  sheep.  I  was 
compelled  to  sacrifice  the  latter,  as  pasturage  was  not  included  in 
the  twenty-five  francs  a  month,  but  the  poultry  were  installed 
in  the  court  at  the  back.  For  the  first  time  in  my  life  I  had  a 
poultry -yard,  and  I  experienced  all  the  deliciously  childish  and 
countrified  sensations  of  '  fetching  the  eggs  myself? 

I  responded  to  the  graciousness  of  my  new  friends  with  stuffs, 
Mussulman  chaplets,  tea,  sugar,  and  perfumes.  The  letters  of 
introduction  had  instructed  them  concerning  the  object  of  my 
visit,  and  having  learned  wisdom  from  my  experience  at  Jenne,  I 
hastened  to  explain  my  purpose  still  further.  They  were  assiduous 
in  their  attentions,  and  constantly  brought  me  new  visitors,  whose 
acquaintance  they  thought  might  be  useful  to  me.  A  charming 
life  now  began  for  me  in  the  house  I  had  entered  with  so  much 
distrust. 

In  the  penumbra  of  the  little  court,  which  was  partly  covered 


J 


220 


TIMBUCTOO 


by  a  verandah,  and  still  further  defended  by  a  large  awning 
against  the  ardour  of  the  Saharian  sun,  I  held  meetings  night 
and  morning.  My  visitors  sat  crouched  upon  their  heels,  while 


MY  COURTYARD  AT  TIMBUCTOO 


I  occupied  the  solitary  chair,  with  a  little  table  and  some  blank 
paper  before  me.  The  picture  recalled  certain  glimpses  of  the 
Mosque  .University  of  El  Azhar  at  Cairo.  It  was  a  class,  in  fact, 
with  the  proportions  reversed,  the  professors  being  the  many  and 
the  pupil  the  one.  The  deliberate  and  picturesque  phraseology 
of  the  Oriental  flowed  on  unceasingly,  recitations  being  succeeded 
by  readings  from  the  old  chronicles  of  Timbuctoo. 

There  was  nothing  pedantic  nor  affected  about  our  gatherings  ; 
each  member  related  his  memories  at  random,  and  passed  from 
subject  to  subject  with  every  imaginable  ease.  Tea,  coffee, 
cigarettes,  and  kola  nuts  circulated  at  intervals.  The  neigh- 
bours'* pigeons  and  '  my  hens '  made  an  occasional  irruption,  but 


TIMBUCTOO 

with  discretion.  Chaffinches  with  red  throats  and  tails,  and  the 
lively  little  lizards  who  shared  the  apartments  with  me,  joined 
the  party.  They  frolicked  in  our  midst  with  the  utmost  effrontery. 
The  lizards  ran  about  all  over  my  guests,  and  the  birds  flew  round 
them,  fluttering  and  singing  incessantly.  No  one  but  myself 
took  any  notice  of  them,  however,  so  accustomed  is  Timbuctoo 
to  their  numbers  and  caprices. 

For  several  days  I  did  not  stir  out  of  my  house ;  my  life  was 
so  full  I  had  no  leisure  to  do  so.  Yet  so  pleasantly  active  and 
varied  was  it  that  I  was  content  to  remain  in,  and  gradually, 


TIMBUCTOO 

without  having  set  foot  in  the  street,  a  new  Timbuctoo  was  built 
up  before  me.  The  wretched  spectacle  which  had  greeted  me  on 
my  arrival,  and  which  I  had  believed  ineffaceable,  disappeared  bit 
by  bit.  A  secret  had  clearly  hovered  over  Timbuctoo  the  Mys- 
terious. I  had  the  eyes  that  saw ;  and  at  last  the  image  of  the 
great  city,  the  wealthy  Timbuctoo  of  the  legends,  was  restored 
to  me. 


CHAPTER   XI 

TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES 

IN  order  to  understand  Jenne,  we  referred  to  the  history  of  the 
countries  east  of  the  Niger,  and  found  there  a  vein  of  Egyptian 
civilisation ;  the  origin  of  Timbuctoo,  however,  must  be  sought 
in  a  different  direction,  for  her  past  is  connected  with  the  Arabian 
civilisation  of  northern  Africa. 

This  same  northern  Africa  was  the  world  of  the  Berbers,  and 
included  all  those  white  people  whom  we  have  known  under  the 
names  of  Touaregs  in  the  Sahara,  Kabyles  in  Algeria,  Moors  in 
Morocco  and  Senegal,  and  Foulbes  in  their  infiltrations  into  the 
Sudan.  Misled  by  their  previous  condition,  we  erroneously 
believed  them  to  have  been  nomads  from  all  eternity  ;  but,  like 
the  Jews,  circumstances  alone  caused  them  to  adopt  a  wandering 
life,  and  in  reality  they  represent  the  autochthonous  populations 
of  Mediterranean  Africa,  of  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli. 
Ibn  Chaldoun,  their  great  historian,  observes  :  '  All  northern 
Africa,  as  far  as  the  country  of  the  blacks,  has  been  inhabited  by 
Berber  races  since  an  epoch  of  which  we  know  neither  its  anterior 
events  nor  its  commencement.'  These  races  lived  on  the  coasts 
of  Africa,  and  cultivated  the  beautiful  valleys  of  Tell  long  before 
the  arrival  of  the  Phoenician  and  Roman  colonists.  Carthage  and 
Rome  set  the  Berbers  in  motion  by  crowding  and  pressing  them 


TIMBUCTOO 

back  into  the  interior,  and  they  it  was  who  transformed  them 
into  a  nomadic  people. 

Originally  the  Berbers  of  Morocco,  that  is  to  say  the  Moors, 


MOORS    IN   THE    NEIGHBOURHOOD   OF   TIMBUCTOO 

were  the  last  to  suffer.  The  ancient  colonisation,  most  intense 
in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  was  less  direct  in  its  effects  on  Morocco, 
which  was  not  entirely  divested  of  its  inhabitants  by  the  arrival 
of  the  colonists.  Half  its  population,  following  the  coasts  of  the 
Atlantic,  wandered  towards  the  country  of  the  blacks,  while  the 
other  half  maintained  themselves  side  by  side  with  the  new- 
comers. This  portion  remained  fairly  stationary  and  compact 
until  the  Arabian  invasion.  Moors  and  Arabs  then  combined 
to  conquer  Spain,  where  for  three  centuries  they  enjoyed  the 
hospitality  offered  them  by  Europe.  It  is  well  known  what 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    225 

valuable  services  their  polished  manners  and  beautiful  art,  their 
cultured  literature  and  advanced  industries,  rendered  to  the  cause 
of  Western  renaissance. 

What  became  of  these  brilliant  people,  we  ask,  when  they 
were  driven  out  of  Spain  ?  Returning  to  Morocco  to  find  their 
ancient  patrimony  in  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  and  being  forced 
to  prolong  their  exodus  into  the  south,  they  followed  the  Atlantic 


MOORISH    Wn.MKN 


coasts  and  the  negro  countries  and  became  nomads  in  their  turn. 
These  Spanish  Moors,  wandering  about  the  great  lakes  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Niger  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Oualata  and 


TIMBUCTOO 

Timbuctoo,  carried  with  them  a  name  which  leaves  us  in  no  doubt 
as  to  their  origin.  They  are  called  Andalusians  to  this  day. 

As  we  shall  see  later,  these  Moors,  at  the  epoch  of  their 
return,  became  one  of  the  prime  factors  in  Timbuctoo's  great- 
ness. The  wonderful  architects  and  the  sumptuous  possessors  of 
the  palaces  and  mosques  of  Seville,  Granada,  and  Cordova  dwell 
to-day  in  leathern  tents,  and  the  sands  of  the  Sahara  are  their 
only  place  of  prayer.  The  vicissitudes  of  nomadic  life  have  sadly 
deteriorated  them  from  the  exalted  civilisation  to  which  they  had 
attained.  Herds  of  goats  and  humped  oxen,  flocks  of  sheep,  and 
a  few  horses  and  books,  form  their  sole  wealth.  The  delicate 
ornamentation  of  leather,  their  embroidered  wallets,  cushions, 
and  gun-cases,  with  some  jewellery  work,  are  all  that  recall  the 
characteristic  manner  of  the  art  they  introduced  into  Europe. 

Let  us  now  see  what  became  of  the  Berbers  of  Algeria  and 
Tunis,  countries  in  which  the  action  of  the  Ancients  was  more 


MOORISH    ENCAMPMENT 


brutal.     A  small  number,  thrown  back  beyond  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, found  a  land  capable  of  maintaining  them  in  the  mountains 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    227 

and  valleys  of  Kabyle,  and  there  they  have  remained,  stationary 
and  impregnable,  through  all  these  centuries. 


SCHOOL   IN   A   MOORISH   ENCAMPMENT 

The  greater  part  of  them  must  have  taken  the  roads  of  the 
Sahara,  at  that  time  in  the  possession  of  the  black  races.  Its 
vast  sands  were  more  habitable  and  fertile  then  than  they  are 
now,  for  it  was  the  inexperience  of  these  new-comers,  their 
excessive  clearings,  and  the  ravages  of  their  herds,  which  diminished 
the  already  parsimonious  gifts  of  Nature  to  the  desert. 

This  exile  forced  a  new  existence  upon  them  which,  little  by 
little,  transformed  the  whole  race  ;  the  place,  and  everything  they 
found  there,  obliging  them  to  adopt  a  special  life,  manners,  and 
even  costume.  We  have  called  this  portion  of  the  Berber  people 
Touaregs,  a  name  of  Arabian  origin,  which  they  completely  ignore, 
only  recognising  the  titles  of  Aoulemidens,  Tenguaragifs,  Tad- 
damakets,  Hoggars,  Azers,  and  Airs,  the  patronymics  of  their 
principal  tribes. 

The  rearing  of  horses,  oxen,  and  goats  is  their  chief  industry, 
the  milk  and  flesh  of  these  animals  furnishing,  with  the  addition 
of  dates,  their  principal  nourishment.  Agriculture  is  scarcely 


228 


TIMBUCTOO 


possible  under  a  sky  from  which  the  rain  does  not  fall  for  six  or 
eight  consecutive  years. 

Owing  to  their  eyes  not  being  accustomed  to  the  terrible  glare 
of  this  desert,  nor  their  lungs  to  its  sand-storms,  they  adopted 
a  head-dress  of  two  veils.  One,  the  nicdb^  is  rolled  round  the 
temples,  hanging  down  in  front  to  protect  their  eyes ;  the  other, 
the  Utham,  reaches  from  the  nostrils  to  the  edge  of  their  clothing, 
completely  covering  the  lower  part  of  the  face.  Hygiene  was 
obviously  the  only  motive  of  this  mysterious  accoutrement,  which 
set  the  savants  seeking  all  manner  of  far-fetched  origins  with 
which  to  endow  these  Touaregs.  This  is  proved  not  only  by 
their  own  statements,  but  also  by  the  sobriquet  '  mouths  for 
flies,1  which  they  give  to  all  who  do  not  wear  this  costume.  The 
veils  are  never  removed,  even  at  meal-times,  and  the  garb  has 


mm'         W 
•  1 

^     '    '       ; 

MOORISH    FLOCKS    IN   THE    NEIGHBOURHOOD   OF   TIMBUCTOO 

become  so  much  a  part  of  them  that  '  any  one  being  deprived 
of  it  is  unrecognisable  to  his  friends  and  relatives.  If  one  of 
their  number  is  killed  in  battle  and  divested  of  his  veil,  no  one 
can  identify  him  until  it  has  been  restored  to  its  place. '  And 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    229 


this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  bridge  of  the  nose  and  the  eyes 
alone  are  visible. 

The  scarcity  of  water  and  their  speedy  exhaustion  of  the  scanty 
pasturage  of  the  desert  kept  them  perpetually  on  the  march. 
With  this  constant  movement  any  aggregation  of  their  life  was 
impossible ;  every 
social  and  political 
organisation  disap- 
peared, and  they 
gradually  lost  all 
notion  of  law  and 
authority.  Like 
the  Jews,  and  all 
people  thrown  out 
of  their  natural 
paths,  their  souls 
and  brains  became 
steeped  in  vice,  and 
it  was  not  long 
before  they  had 
become  the  mere 
prey  of  their  in- 
stincts. Their 
nomadic  life  soon 
reduced  them  to  the  level  of  vagabonds,  thieves,  and  brigands, 
and  the  only  law  they  recognised  was  the  right  of  the  strongest. 

Theft  was  their  natural  industry — a  branch  of  education,  in  fact 
— and  they  augmented  the  meagreness  of  their  herds  by  extorting 
ransoms  from  some  of  their  neighbours  and  completely  despoiling 
others.  Travellers  and  merchants  were  their  principal  victims,  but 
when  these  failed  they  robbed  and  killed  each  other  ;  for,  so  far 


TOUAREG   WITH    '  NICAB  '   AND    '  LITHAM  ' 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    231 

from  their  tribes  being  united,  they  were  divided  by  the  most 
bitter  and  persistent  hatreds. 

They  adopted  a  vague  form  of  Islamism  which  they  reduced  to 
a  belief  in  talismans.  Since  no  morality,  Mohammedan  or  other- 
wise, found  foothold  among  them,  they  soon  became  characterised 
by  the  worst  vices,  only  retaining  the  one  quality  of  physical 
endurance.  Thieves  and  murderers  when  in  sufficient  numbers, 
they  are  the  most  obsequious  of  beggars  when  convinced  of  their 
weakness,  and  are,  in  either  case,  absolutely  faithless.  A  Sudanese 
proverb  says,  '  The  word  of  a  Touareg,  like  water  fallen  on  the  sand, 
is  never  to  be  found  again/  They  have  nobles,  serfs,  and  slaves 
among  them,  but  nobility  none ;  if  you  wish  to  find  any  quality 
other  than  vanity  and  pride,  you  must  look  for  it  among  their 
negro  slaves.  Neither  age  nor  womanhood  inspires  them  with 
either  pity  or  respect.  Bloodthirsty  and  cruel  as  they  are,  they 
do  not  even  possess  that  unlimited  courage  which  forms  the 
redeeming  characteristic  of  the  condottieri.  Their  valour  is  dis- 
played at  night  during  the  sleep  of  their  victims  or  adversaries. 
Ruse  is  their  principal  weapon,  even  though  they  never  show  them- 
selves without  a  spear  in  their  hand,  a  sword  at  their  side,  and  a 
poignard  attached  to  the  left  arm.  The  Sudanese  have  bestowed 
upon  them  three  epithets  which  epitomise  their  psychology : 
'  Thieves,  Hyenas,  and  the  Abandoned  of  God." 

Yet  it  is  to  these  people,  who  have  become  the  most  useless 
and  nefarious  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  that  Timbuctoo  owes  its 
origin. 

Towards  the  fifth  century  of  the  Hegira  (1100  of  our  era)  a 
Touareg  tribe,  the  Maksara,1  established  its  herds  between  the 

1  The  Markassighi  of  today,  settled  to  the  east  of  Timbuctoo,  and  forming  part  of 
the  Tenguaragif  family. 


232  TIMBUCTOO 

town  of  Arawan  in  the  Sahara  and  the  little  village  of  Amtagh,1 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Niger. 

During  the  summer  and  dry  season  they  pastured  their  flocks 
on  the  shores  of  the  river,  returning  to  the  desert  for  the  winter 
floods.  In  one  of  their  many  wanderings  they  noticed  an  oasis  in 
the  midst  of  the  sands,  formed  by  an  overflow  of  the  Niger.  It 
was  a  narrow  depression,  having  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
river,  and  must  have  been  fairly  deep,  since  the  hippopotamus 
found  his  way  there,  and  was  a  place  in  which  the  Touaregs  could 
always  be  sure  of  finding  some  vegetation,  as  well  as  abundant  and 
excellent  water. 

The  situation  was  an  admirable  one  for  man  and  beast, 
and,  with  the  palm-trees  which  reared  their  elegant  forms  there, 
did  not  lack  a  certain  charm  of  aspect.  They  established  a 
fixed  camp  on  this  spot  in  order  to  prevent  its  occupation  by 
others  during  their  absence.  They  cut  down  bushes  of  thorny 
mimosa  from  the  neighbouring  thickets,  and  formed,  according 
to  their  custom,  a  same,  or  enclosure,  to  keep  out  the  wild 
animals  of  the  desert — lions,  panthers,  and  hyaenas.  Straw  huts 
were  built  behind  this  shelter,  in  which  the  Touaregs  placed 
their  provisions  and  other  cumbersome  properties.  They  left 
some  Bailas,  or  slaves,  there,  who  kept  guard  under  the  super- 
intendence of  an  old  woman  called  '  Tomboutou '  (The  mother 
with  the  large  navel). 

The  sobriquet  became  popular  in  the  country,  and  contributed 

to  the  speedy  renown   of  the  advantages  of  their  encampment. 

r^~^^ 

\       'Travellers  paused  there,"  says  the  Tank  e  Sudan.     'The  popu- 
lations increased  by  the  power  and  will  of  God,  and  the  people 

. 
began  to  build  themselves  fixed  dwellings.     Caravans  coming  from 

the  north  and  east  (Algeria  and  Tripoli)  on  their  way  to  the 

1  The  Hamtagal  of  to-day,  to  the  south-west  of  Timbuctoo. 


234  TIMBUCTOO 

/ 
Mali  kingdom  delayed  at  the  camp  to  renew  their  stores.      A 

market  was  soon  formed ;  a  high  enclosure  of  matting  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  barrier  of  dead  thorns,  and  it  became  a  meeting- 
lace  for  people  travelling  by  canoe  or  cam  el/ 

The  place  did  not  deserve  the  name  of  town,  however,  until 
the  merchants  of  Jenne  (which  had  been  a  city  for  some  three 
hundred  years)  settled  there.  The  tradition  which  I  have  just 
mentioned  concerning  the  origin  of  the  town  was  confirmed  in 
Timbuctoo.  '  The  Touaregs  are  the  fathers  of  the  town,1  my 
friends  told  me.  '  When  thou  wert  little,  what  didst  thou  call  her 
who  nourished  thee  at  her  breast  ?  Thou  calledst  her  mother, 
didst  thou  not  ?  Well,  Jenne  is  the  mother  of  Timbuctoo,  for 
it  was  she  who  made  it  live  and  grow  ;  and  it  was  she  who,  by 
bringing  hither  her  merchandise,  caused  it  to  become  a  great 
place  of  commerce/ 

The  merchants  of  Jenne  taught  Timbuctoo  to  build  houses 
of  baked  brick,  and  to  replace  the  same  of  mats  by  a  low  earthen 
wall.  They  also  built  a  mosque,  afterwards  the  Cathedral  Mosque 
of  Ghingaraber;  and  a  wealthy  woman,  a  native  of  Sokolo, 
erected  a  second  temple,  which  became  later  the  University 
Mosque  of  Sankore.  Thus  enlarged,  Timbuctoo  entered  into 
competition  with  Oualata.1  The  latter  town  was  the  great 
cosmopolitan  market  of  western  Africa  in  the  twelfth  century. 
4  It  was  with  Oualata  that  the  caravans  traded,  and  it  was  there 
the  most  pious,  learned,  and  wealthy  men  lived.  They  went 
thither  from  all  countries  and  all  tribes,  from  Egypt,  Fezzara, 
Soussa,  Tuat,  Tafilalet,  Ghadames,  Ouargla,  and  Fez.1  This 
active  and  intelligent  population,  which  was  strongly  imbued 
with  the  Arabian  civilisation,  could  not  fail  to  make  acquaint- 

1  Called  Ganata  and  Gana  by  the  Arabs  in  the  ancient  texts,  and  Birou  by  the 
Songhois. 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    235 

ance  with  Timbuctoo  and  the  many  advantages  of  its  position. 
The  numerous  conquests  of  the  Mali  kings,  however,  which  dis- 
turbed western  Africa  in  the  thirteenth  century,  diverted  the 
caravans  little  by  little  from  Oualata.  Its  merchants  and  scholars 
emigrated  to  the  new  city,  and  were  supplemented  there  by  a 
fraction  of  the  great  Moorish  tribe  of  Senhadia.  By  the  four- 
teenth century  Oualata  had  become  entirely  eclipsed,  and  the 
splendours  of  Timbuctoo  had  grown  from  her  ruins. 

The  Touaregs,  who  still  pursued  the  wandering  life  of  the 
desert,  contented  themselves  with  nominating  a  governor  of  the 
town  who  levied  taxes  in  their  name.  They  augmented  their 
demand  in  proportion  to  the  increasing  prosperity  of  the  town, 
until  inhabitants  and  caravans  alike  were  forced  to  pay  veritable 
ransoms.  Becoming,  not  unnaturally,  weary  of  this,  the  people 
invited  Koukour  Moussa,  whose  kingdom  of  Mali  was  then  at  its 
height,  to  take  possession  of  the  town.  He,  being  just  returned 
from  the  conquest  of  the  Songhois  and  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
entered  Timbuctoo  in  1330.  He  presented  the  Cathedral  Mosque 
with  a  minaret  of  pyramidal  form,  built  himself  a  palace,  and 
installed  a  governor  there  upon  his  departure.  The  dominion  of 
the  Malinkas  did  not  open  very  happily,  however.  The  cupidity 
of  the  people  of  Mossi  had  already  been  excited  by  the  renown  of 
Timbuctoo,  and  their  sultan  now  appeared  before  its  gates  at  the 
head  of  a  large  army.  The  new  masters  of  the  town  took  flight, 
while  the  enemy  pillaged  and  burned.  When  the  Sultan  of  Mossi 
and  his  army  withdrew,  laden  with  spoils,  the  people  of  Mali 
repossessed  themselves  of  Timbuctoo,  and  remained  its  masters  for 
a  hundred  years  (1337-1434). 

The  young  city  arose  once  more  from  its  ruins,  and  Timbuctoo 
expanded  as  the  kingdom  of  Mali  declined.  4  The  original  masters 
of  the  town  did  not  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the  deterioration  of 


TIMBUCTOO 

their  rivals.  The  Maksara  Touaregs  pillaged  the  outskirts  of  the 
town,  and  the  Malinkas  were  afraid  to  offer  any  resistance.  Akil, 
the  chief  of  the  Touaregs,  sent  a  message  to  them  at  last,  saying, 
'  If  you  cannot  defend  Timbuctoo,  cease  to  occupy  it."1  Whereupon 
the  people  of  Mali  retired. 

The  nomads  now  reigned  for  forty  years,  committing  the 
grossest  excesses.  They  proved  themselves  tyrants  and  oppressors, 
accumulating  exactions,  hunting  people  from  their  dwellings,  and 
violating  the  women  ;  and  for  the  second  time  the  town  was 
forced  to  seek  a  new  master. 

Oumar,  its  governor,  having  been  wronged  by  his  own  people 
(the  Touaregs),  secretly  resolved  upon  revenge.  With  this 
intention  he  sent  a  messenger  to  Sunni  Ali,  giving  information 
concerning  Akil  and  the  Touaregs,  exposing  their  weakness,  and 
promising  to  deliver  up  the  town.  The  messenger  took  Oumar's 
sandals  with  him  as  a  guarantee  of  good  faith.  Sunni  Ali,  who 
was  at  that  time  (middle  of  the  fifteenth  century)  laying  the 
foundations  of  the  Songhoi  empire,  accepted  the  invitation.  At 
the  appearance  of  his  cavalry  on  the  river-bank  opposite  the  dune 
of  Amtagh,  Akil  resolved  on  flight.  He  departed,  followed  by 
his  people  and  a  great  number  of  the  learned  men  of  Sankore,  to 
seek  refuge  in  Oualata.  Sunni  Ali  was  furious  at  the  exodus  of 
marabuts,  and  suspecting  the  remainder  of  being  the  friends  and 
accomplices  of  the  Touaregs,  he  heaped  every  imaginable  ill- 
treatment  upon  them.  Did  he  show  himself  equally  cruel  towards 
the  remainder  of  the  inhabitants  ?  In  spite  of  the  old  chronicles, 
I  do  not  believe  he  did,  for  the  reasons  I  have  given  in  the  history 
of  the  Songhois. 

The  year  1496,  the  year  of  the  capture  of  Timbuctoo  by  Sunni 
Ali,  is  an  important  one  in  the  history  of  that  city.  For  the 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    237 

future  she  forms  part  of  the  Songhoi  empire,  steadily  keeping  pace 
with  the  progress  of  the  latter,  until  she  becomes  Timbuctoo  the 
Great,  the  city  of  universal  renown,  the  fabled  Queen  of  the 
Sudan. 

More  than  a  century  of  tranquillity  now  lies  before  her,  the 
century  of  Askia  the  Great.  Owing  to  his  wise  creation  of  a 
standing  army,  his  great  era  of  war  had  no  disturbing  influence 
upon  the  Sudan.  The  well-regulated  and  powerful  organisation 
which,  with  their  viceroys  and  governors,  he  bestowed  upon  the 
conquered  territories,  soon  brought  them  under  control. 

The  immense  kingdom  of  the  Songhois  now  extended  over  the 
desert  from  Thegazza  to  Agades,  and  the  conquered  Touaregs 
renounced  their  brigandage  to  become  docile  auxiliaries  in  the 
hands  of  Askia.  The  routes  of  the  desert  were  perfectly  secure, 
and  the  caravans  came  and  went  with  an  activity  hitherto 
unknown. 

This  security,  spreading  north  and  south  of  Timbuctoo,  was 
not  the  only  element  of  her  prosperity,  but  was  seconded 
by  the  organisation  and  inspection  of  her  markets,  the  unifica- 
tion of  weights  and  measures,  and  the  stern  suppression  of  all 
falsifications.  Timbuctoo,  more  than  any  other  town  in  the 
Sudan,  profited  by  the  measures  and  victories  of  Askia  the 
Great. 

The  city  had  now  doubled  its  extent.  Its  houses  were  well 
built,  and  arranged  in  orderly  streets.  The  ancient  mosques  had 
been  restored  and  new  ones  built.  A  great  emigration  of 
Songhois  reinforced  the  Jennereans,  counterbalancing  the  Arabian 
and  Berber  elements,  which  had  hitherto  predominated.  The 
dialects  of  Jenne  and  Gao  became  its  current  speech,  Arabic 
remaining  the  medium  of  communication  with  strangers  and  the 
language  of  science.  The  university  of  Sankore  was  at  the  height 


238  TIMBUCTOO 

of  its  prosperity,  the  fame  of  its  professors  being  known  not  only 
in  the  black  countries  but  throughout  Arabian  Africa  itself. 
Learned  strangers  Hocked  hither  from  Morocco,  Tunis,  and  Egypt. 
The  civilisation  of  Arabia  clasped  hands  with  the  civilisation  of 
Egypt,  and  from  their  union  resulted  the  apogee  of  Timbuctoo 
(1494-1591). 

Such  was  her  splendour  that  our  imaginations  are  still  dazzled 
by  its  reflections,  three  centuries  after  the  setting  of  her  star.  So 
great  was  her  glory  that,  in  spite  of  all  the  vicissitudes  she  has 
suffered,  her  vitality  is  not  yet  extinguished. 

The  decadence  of  Timbuctoo  began  with  the  Moorish  conquest 
in  1591.  The  powerful  links  forged  by  Askia  the  Great  being 
once  snapped,  the  whole  of  western  Africa  was  shaken.  While 
the  last  of  the  Askias  was  fighting  for  national  independence  on 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Niger,  Jenne  revolted  in  the  west,  her 
example  being  followed  by  the  Touaregs,  Foulbes,  and  Malinkase. 
The  north  and  south  were  thrown  into  confusion,  and  Timbuctoo, 
their  intermediary,  seeing  her  commerce  mutilated,  rebelled  in  her 
turn.  She  was  brutally  repressed  by  the  conquerors,  and  the 
flower  of  her  scholars  exiled  to  Morocco  (1594).  A  terrible 
dearth,  provoked  by  the  lack  of  rain,  visited  the  town,  and  her 
inhabitants  were  reduced  to  'eating  the  corpses  of  animals, 
and  even  of  men/  This  was  followed  by  the  pestilence  in 
1618. 

When  the  Sudan  had  once  more  regained  tranquillity, 
Timbuctoo,  by  reason  of  her  proximity  to  the  Moorish  frontier, 
had  become  the  capital  of  her  conquerors.  The  rivalries  of  the 
Roumas  reigned  within  her  walls,  their  pashas  disputing  the 
supreme  power,  and  their  troops  settling  their  differences  in  the 
streets.  The  town  was  the  constant  scene  of  some  panic,  and 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    239 

from  the  moment  the  disorganisation  of  the  Moorish  colony 
became  evident,  her  decline  was  rapid. 

Without,  the  Touaregs  and  other  nomadic  tribes  rose  again  in 
revolt.  The  Roumas  were  still  strong  enough  to  repress  them, 
but  one  can  imagine  the  disastrous  effect  these  riots  had  upon  the 
trade  of  the  town.  Within,  the  rivalries  of  the  Moorish  chiefs 
grew  more  and  more  bitter.  The  competitors  for  the  title  of 
Pasha  pillaged  and  otherwise  ill-treated  the  inhabitants  of  the 
town.  The  population  divided,  and  took  sides  with  this,  that,  or 
the  other  aspirant.  Barricades  were  raised,  fighting  went  on  in 
the  streets,  and  the  poor  pillaged  the  wealthy.  In  1716  one  of 
these  revolutions  lasted  four  months.  No  one  went  to  market 
during  all  that  time,  '  and  the  grass  began  to  grow  there.1  At 
another  time  (1735)  one  of  the  rivals  seized  Kabara,  and  pre- 
vented the  vessels  unloading  their  merchandise  and  despatching  it 
to  Timbuctoo. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  town  was  depopulated, 
and  that  the  caravans  grew  fewer  and  further  between.  Touaregs, 
Berbers,  and  Foulbes  added  to  the  general  confusion.  They  began 
by  disturbing  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  and  it  became  necessary  to 
place  patrols  on  the  road  to  Kabara  in  order  to  protect  the 
merchants  trading  with  Timbuctoo.  The  resistance  of  the 
Roumas  grew  slowly  weaker,  and  in  1770  the  veiled  men  had 
become  strong  enough  to  invest  the  town  for  three  months.  The 
Roumas,  incapable  of  enforcing  peace,  bought  it.  '  They  paid  the 
Touaregs  a  tribute  of  eighteen  of  the  best  horses  of  the  town, 
twelve  hundred  garments,  and  seven  thousand  mitkals  of 

gold: 

The  nomads  spread  freely  over  the  banks  and  valley  of  the 
Niger,  pillaging  the  vessels  making  for  Kabara,  and  thus  injuring, 
even  at  a  distance,  the  trade  of  Timbuctoo. 


240 


TIMBUCTOO 


PANORAMA • OF 


Iii  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  city  had 
relapsed  into  the  same  state  as  that  preceding  its  conquest  by 
Sunni  Ali.  The  Roumas  had  become  the  mere  representatives  of 
the  Touaregs,  governing  and  imposing  taxes  in  their  name.  Straw 
huts  increased  in  numbers,  and  the  new  quarters  at  the  north  of 
the  city,  which  had  been  built  in  the  time  of  Askia,  were  com- 
pletely deserted,  the  houses  falling  into  ruins.  As  its  decline 
became  more  accentuated  the  town  diminished  in  extent  until  it 
had  shrunk  to  its  dimensions  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Timbuctoo  was  re-delivered  from  the  hands  of  the  Touaregs  in 
1827.  Cheikou  Ahmadou,  the  Foulbean  leader,  made  successful 
war  against  the  nomads,  and  took  possession  of  the  town.  But  the 
Touaregs,  grown  aggressive,  wearied  out  his  successor,  who  agreed, 
for  the  sake  of  peace,  to  pay  them  a  third  of  the  taxes  levied  upon 
the  city.  This  understanding  lasted  until  El  Hadj  Omar  destroyed 
the  power  of  the  Foulbes  in  1861. 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    241 


TIMBUCTOO 


The  most  critical  period  of  her  history  now  opened  for 
Timbuctoo.  The  roads  of  the  Sudan  and  desert  alike  had  never 
been  less  safe,  nor  had  her  commerce  ever  encountered  such 
difficulties,  all  security  having  disappeared  in  the  town  itself. 

If  Timbuctoo  was  now  without  a  master,  she  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  thousand  tyrants.  Touaregs,  Tenguaragifs  and  Irre- 
genaten  divided  her  among  themselves  and  adorned  her  with  the 
tragic  and  sordid  attire  which  now  clothes  the  Queen  of  the 
Sudan. 

That  time  has  been  described  to  me  in  the  following  words : 
'  Thou  hast  seen  those  veiled  men  in  sombre  garments,  with  chest 
and  back  covered  with  red  and  yellow  talismans  as  though  by 
cuirasses.  When  they  come  to  us  now  they  are  modest,  but  before 
the  French  arrived  they  walked  insolently  through  the  streets, 
carrying  iron  spears.  Every  year  we  paid  them  tribute  in  gold  or 
kind,  corn,  salt,  garments," and  turbans,  etc.  Their  chiefs  with 


TIMBUCTOO 


their  retinues  were  well  lodged  when  they  came  here.  The  cara- 
vans bound  for  this  town  paid  them  toll  in  the  desert,  and  they 
exacted  toll  upon  the  river  also,  from  the  fleets  going  to  Kabara. 

This  did  not  suffice 
them ;  these  were 
the  least  of  our 
evils.  From  one 
end  of  the  year 
to  the  other  they 
treated  us  as  cap- 
tives of  war,  as 
slaves.  They  were 
constantly  arriv- 
ing in  groups  and 
dispersing  through 
the  town.  All 
doors  were  closed 
as  soon  as  they 
appeared,  but  they 
beat  upon  the 
doors,  and  thou 
canst  see  the 
traces  of  the  heavy 
blows  from  their 
a  lances  everywhere. 
We  were  forced 
to  open  to  them, 

and  without  paying  the  least  attention  to  the  master  of  the 
house  or  his  family,  they  would  install  themselves  in  the  best 
rooms,  taking  all  the  cushions  and  couches,  insolently  demanding 
food  and  drink,  and  insisting  upon  having  sugar,  honey,  and  meat. 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    243 

On  departing  to  rejoin  their  camp  the  only  acknowledgment  they 
made  was  to  steal  something  from  the  house  and  spit  upon  their 
host. 

'If  they  alighted  upon  some  man  too  poor  to  satisfy  their 
exactions,  they  vented  their  ill-humour  by  destroying  his  belong- 
ings, and  any  attempt  at  resistance  was  met  by  their  raised  spear. 
If  they  arrived  at  midnight,  accommodation  must  be  found  and  a 
repast  prepared  for  them. 

6  They  took  possession  of  anything  that  pleased  them  in  the 
markets.  All  the  shops  and  sellers  of  stuffs  and  garments  had 
people  posted  about  the  town  to  give  notice  of  their  appearance, 
and  every  one  barricaded  their  doors.  They  robbed  the  passers- 
by  in  the  streets.  If  they  met  a  man  wearing  a  beautifully 
embroidered  robe  or  a  new  garment,  or  even  only  a  clean  one, 
they  instantly  despoiled  him  of  it.  They  snatched  the  golden 
ornaments,  coral  necklaces,  and  adornments  of  glass  beads  from 
the  women,  and  plundered  children  and  slaves  in  the  same 
manner. 

'  The  schools  were  formerly  held  in  front  of  the  houses  of  the 
masters,  and  our  children  played  in  the  streets  as  in  other  parts  of 
the  Sudan.  But  the  Touaregs  used  to  seize  them  and  carry  them 
off,  and  only  restored  them  to  us  upon  the  payment  of  heavy 
ransoms.  If  a  man  whom  they  suspected  of  being  rich  had  hidden 
all  his  valuables,  they  would  leave  some  small  thing  behind  on 
quitting  his  house,  and  then  would  return  in  numbers,  crying  out 
that  they  had  been  robbed,  and  the  man  would  be  forced  to  pay 
an  indemnity.'1 

These  narratives  would  be  interrupted  by  sundry  resigned 
'  Irtish  Allah!''  (May  God's  will  be  done).  'But  why  did  you  not 
unite  against  your  enemies?'  I  asked  them.  'Oh,  if  we  resisted 
them  it  was  still  worse.  One  day  some  Touaregs  met  a  young 


244  TIMBUCTOO 

man  returning  from  the  market  with  some  meat  he  had  bought. 
They  took  his  purchase  from  him,  and  when  the  young  man  re- 
sisted, the  Abandoned  of  God  killed  him  with  their  spears.  All 
for  a  piece  of  meat !  At  another  time  a  woman  who  was  alone  in 
a  house  was  ill-treated  by  one  of  them.  Her  cries  attracted  her 
brother,  who  mortally  wounded  the  Touareg  in  his  wrath.  The 
avenger  immediately  fled  and  sought  refuge  in  Sarafara,  but  he 
was  forced  to  return,  and  the  veiled  men  cut  his  throat  as  they 
would  a  sheep's. 

4  We  could  not  prevail  against  them,  because  we  are  merchants 
and  not  fighters.  And  if  we  had  subdued  them  in  the  town  they 
would  still  have  remained  our  masters,  because  they  controlled  the 
routes  of  the  caravans  and  the  road  to  Kabara.  They  could  have 
ruined  us  and  left  us  to  die  of  hunger  whenever  they  liked. 

4  Strangers  sometimes  gave  these  hyaenas  a  lesson.  Four  or  five 
years  ago  a  caravan  from  the  south,  composed  of  three  hundred  of 
the  men  of  Mossi,  was  staying  in  the  town.  One  of  them,  wear- 
ing a  beautiful  new  turban,  encountered  a  Touareg,  who  snatched 
it  from  his  head  and  ran  away.  But  the  people  of  Mossi  are 
active  and  brave,  and  this  man  gave  chase  to  the  thief  and  over- 
powered him.  Other  Touaregs,  however,  came  up  and  rescued 
their  companion. 

'  The  man  of  Mossi  ran  to  the  chief  of  the  caravan,  who  said, 
"Beat  the  alarum  of  the  people  of  Mossi  upon  the  tom-toms." 
His  people,  armed  with  spears  and  bows  and  arrows,  came  running 
to  answer  the  summons.  Their  chief  distributed  honey-dolo,  and 
they  set  out  to  find  the  Touaregs.  The  principal  personages  of 
Timbuctoo  sought  to  prevent  the  conflict.  "  No ! "  replied  the 
chief,  "  we  are  strangers  here  and  your  sacred  guests.  We  have 
been  injured,  and  we  will  avenge  ourselves  or  die."  The  kaid  of 
the  town  offered  to  give  them  a  similar  turban.  "  No,"  said  the 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    245 

chief  of  the  Mossi,  "it  is  the  Touaregs  who  have  stolen  it, 
and  it  is  they  who  must  make  amends."  They  were  only  to  be 
appeased  on  hearing  that  the  Touaregs  had  prudently  quitted  the 
town/ 

Such  was  the  existence  of  Timbuctoo  during  the  last  thirty- 
five  years.     One  can  imagine  the  disastrous  results  such  a  state  of 


A   THOROUGHFARE    IN    TIMBUCTOO 


affairs  was  bound  to  produce  in  the  long-run.  Finding  themselves 
thus  molested,  the  strangers  who  ventured  there  gradually  lessened 
in  numbers.  Weary  of  living  in  a  constant  state  of  alarm,  and  of 
submitting  to  exactions  to  which  they  saw  no  end,  the  people 
began  to  emigrate.  The  strangers  who  had  settled  in  the  city 
returned  to  their  native  country.  Natives  who  had  relations  in 
the  neighbouring  countries  joined  them  there.  The  deserted 
houses  cracked,  their  walls  crumbled  and  fell  to  pieces,  forming 


246  TIMBUCTOO 

the  unexpected  and  inexplicable  heaps  of  ruins  which  greeted 
me  on  my  arrival. 

The  poorest  and  wealthiest  alone  remained  faithful  to  the  city. 
The  first,  living  in  straw  huts,  possessed  nothing,  and  consequently 
had  nothing  to  lose.  The  second,  the  opulent  merchants,  could, 
owing  to  their  great  fortunes,  manage  to  endure  these  annoyances, 
and  the  emigration  of  the  smaller  traders,  moreover,  permitted 
them  to  augment  their  business,  and  therefore  their  profits. 

No  one  ever  gets  accustomed  to  pillage  and  ill-treatment  how- 
ever, whatever  the  compensations  may  be ;  and  to  avoid  being 
robbed  in  the  open  street,  and  seeing  their  houses  turned  upside 
down,  the  inhabitants  adopted  a  new  manner  of  living.  They 
transformed  their  garments  and  dwellings,  and  ceasing  to  be 
Timbuctoo  the  Great,  they  became  Timbuctoo  the  Mysterious. 

Instead  of  the  imposing  white  turbans  of  the  natives  and  the 
beautiful  dark  ones  (made  of  shining  tissues)  of  the  Moors,  the 
people  cover  their  heads  with  unappetising  rags,  or  cheap  caps. 
Shabby  old  shoes  are  substituted  for  the  yellow  Turkish  slippers 
of  the  women  and  the  silk  embroidered,  soft,  red  leather  boots  of 
the  men.  The  caftans  and  the  ample  garments  of  dazzling  white- 
ness, the  beautifully  embroidered  vestments,  the  fringed  and 
ornamented  Dissas  (thrown  over  the  shoulder  as  the  toreador  wears 
his  cloak),  have  all  disappeared.  They  wear  instead  old  scanty 
clothes,  whose  dirtiness,  being  their  sole  adornment,  offers  no 
temptation  to  the  Touaregs.  In  place  of  the  long  cane,  orna- 
mented with  leather  or  chased  iron,  on  which  the  Sudanese  loves 
to  support  his  fine  form,  they  use  a  plain  stick  of  a  cheap  white 
wood.  Their  one  idea  being  to  avoid  any  sign  of  affluence  which 
might  attract  the  attention  of  their  oppressors. 

On  the  few  occasions  of  their  going  out,  the  women  attire 
themselves  in  the  coarsest  stuffs,  and  take  off  all  their  gold  and 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    247 

amber  ornaments,  and  the  slaves,  before  going  to  fetch  water  at 
the  town  gates,  hide  their  modest  jewellery.  The  children  are 
kept  inside  the  courts,  and  the  schoolmaster  holds  his  classes  with- 
in his  house. 

The  houses  are  disguised  like  their  owners,  and,  to  escape  the 
visits  of  the  veiled  men,  all  appearance  of  wealth  and  prosperity  is 
avoided.  I  will  not  assert  that  they  are  voluntarily  defaced,  but 
time  and  weather  are  allowed  to  work  their  will  upon  them 
unhindered.  The  tornadoes  of  winter  have  been  permitted  to 
wash  away  the  rough-casting  and  expose  the  baked  bricks  of  the 
facades ;  the  walls  of  their  terraces  have  crumbled,  and  the  little 


SUDANESE  WEARING  THE   '  DISSA  ' 


Moorish  windows  fallen  away.  In  front  of  the  houses,  the  banks 
of  earth  (tim-tims)  on  which  the  well-to-do  were  wont  to  pass 
their  hours  of  leisure  have  entirely  disappeared. 

By  these  means  the  town  very  soon  acquired  a  tumble-down 


248 


TIMBUCTOO 


and  battered  appearance.  Everything  seems  to  be  falling  into  the 
streets,  except  the  doors — those  obstinately  closed  doors  that  had 
so  astonished  me  on  my  arrival.  They  are  the  objects  of  the  most 


TIMBUCTOO:  A  CORNER  OF  THE  TOWN 

studied  care,  and  are  set  up  regardless  of  cost.  Heavy  planks  of  a 
very  hard  wood  are  brought  from  a  distance  for  this  purpose,  and 
are  adorned  with  armour  like  any  gentleman  of  Agincourt.  Thus 
barricaded,  the  inhabitants,  under  cover  of  a  simulated  misery, 
live  the  silent  life  of  the  cloisters.  They  have  given  up  grinding 
their  kuss-kuss  in  the  great  wooden  mortars  common  to  the 
Sudan,  and  now  crush  the  grain  between  two  stones  and  pound 


TIMBUCTOO    ACROSS    THE    CENTURIES    249 

it  without  noise,  for  the  sound  of  the  heavy  pestle  would  inevit- 
ably attract  some  marauding  Touareg  in  search  of  a  meal. 
If  a  knocking  on  the  door  is  heard,  the  whole  household,  hastily 
concealing  its  valuables,  assumes  the  silence  of  death.  The 
unfamiliar  visitor  has  to  loudly  recite  his  names,  his  recommenda- 
tions, and  the  purpose  of  his  visit.  If  his  discourse  is  judged  satis- 
factory, and  it  is  decided  to  show  some  sign  of  life,  there  are  still 
questions  to  be  asked  and  answered  before  the  door  is  finally 
opened. 

The  same  mystery  naturally  attends  all  business  transactions ; 
a  moment  must  be  snatched  when  all  Touaregs  are  known  to  be  at 
some  distance,  otherwise  it  is  necessary  to  wait  until  nightfall. 

I  was  initiated  into  the  secret  of  Timbuctoo,  and  her  disastrous 
appearance  was  explained  to  me.  With  my  narrators  for  guides  I 
explored  the  same  streets  and  houses  that  I  had  seen  on  my 
arrival.  The  armoured  doors  were  opened  for  me,  and  there  lay 
revealed  all  that  these  tumble-down  old  places  concealed.  I  was 
seized  with  admiration  both  for  the  splendour  of  Timbuctoo's  past 
and  her  ingenuity  and  tenacity  of  to-day. 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE    COMMERCE   AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO 

TIMBUCTOO  is   the  meeting-place  of  all  who  travel  by  camel  or 
canoe.1 

This  simple  dictum  of  an  old  Sudanese  chronicle  excellently 
expresses  the  commercial  greatness  of  the  city ;  the  '  canoe ' 
represent- 
ing the 
south  of 
Timb  uc- 
t  o  o  (the 
Sudan) 
and  the 
'camel'  in- 
dicating 
the  Sahara 
and  the 
whole  of 
northern 

Africa,   Morocco,    Algeria,   Tuat,    Tunis,    Tripoli,   and,   finally, 
Europe. 

An  intermediary  of  exchange  between  north  and  south  having 
become  essential,  Timbuctoo  supplies  the  part,  and  serves  to  unite 

250 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    251 

the  Berber  and  Arab  with  the  Negraic  world.  This  task  is 
marvellously  facilitated  by  her  unique  situation.  Placed  as  she 
is  at  the  outlet  of  a  labyrinth  of  tributaries,  creeks,  and  channels, 
at  the  point  where  the  Niger  bends  abruptly  from  the  western  to 
its  eastern  course,  she  offers  an  easy  point  of  concentration  to 
north  and  south.  Here  the  Sudan  can  assemble  her  many 
different  products,  and  satisfy  all  her  clients  of  the  north  at 
the  same  time.  Timbuctoo  is  like  a  port  with  bonded  docks 
situated  on  the  coast  of  an  opulent  continent,  with  a  sea  of 
sand  stretching  before  her  upon  which  the  fleets  of  the  desert 
come  and  go. 

The  commerce  of  the  desert  and  the  organisation  of  its 
caravans  were  established  by  the  Moorish  and  Arabian  tribes 

who  dwelt  on  the 
confines  of  the  de- 
sert.    The  country 
fjjP  in     which     they 

pitched  their  tents 
permits  of  no  cul- 
tivation, but  fav- 
ours the  rearing 
of  innumerable 
camels,  and  the 
nomads  offer  the 
native  merchants 
ACARAVAN  the  hire  of  these 

useful  animals1  in  exchange  for  cereals  and  clothing. 

1  The  hire  of  a  camel  plying  between  Morocco  and  Timbuctoo  costs  from 
forty  to  fifty  francs,  and  merchants  usually  employ  from  thirty  to  forty  of  these 
animals. 


252  TIMBUCTOO 

On  account  of  its  proximity  and  its  former  conquest  of  the 
city,  Morocco  has  become  the  principal  client  of  Timbuctoo, 
Tendouf,  Souara,  Marrakesh,  Fez,  and  Tafilalet  being  the  points 
of  departure  of  its  caravans.  Algeria  is  only  of  secondary  import- 
ance, as  its  relations  with  the  city  are  indirect,  being  established 
by  means  of  Tuat ;  in  the  same  manner  Tunis  and  Tripoli  trade 
through  Ghadames.  The  caravans  from  the  coast  are  chiefly 
laden  with  European  stuffs,  the  principal  fabric  being  the  indigo 
blue  cotton  called  Guinea,  which  is  imported  all  over  Africa. 
It  is  worth  from  fourteen  to  twenty-five  francs  the  length  in 
Timbuctoo,  and  only  seven  in  Senegal.  White  calico  is  also  in 
great  request,  and  a  few  silks  are  numbered  among  the  more 
luxurious  textiles.  In  a  general  way  the  odd  medley  of  patterns 
and  colours  which  are  in  such  demand  upon  the  coast  are  despised 
in  Nigerian  Africa,  their  place  being  taken  by  more  sober  designs 
of  Arabian  character. 

Other  articles  of  commerce  are  firearms,  gunpowder,  cutlery, 
paper  (sold  on  the  Niger  at  twenty-five  or  thirty  centimes 
a  sheet),  scissors,  needles,  mirrors,  silk,  and  seed  pearls  (for 
embroidery),  amber,  coral,  large  pearls  for  necklaces,  spices 
(principally  cloves),  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  perfumes,  tobacco  from 
Tuat,  teapots,  cups,  snuff-boxes,  dates,  carpets,  fez,  burnouses, 
caftans,  etc. 

The  camels  are  only  partly  loaded  on  starting,  for  half-way  the 
caravans  complete  their  freights  with  that  unique  article,  salt.  I 
have  laid  stress  upon  the  primary  importance  of  this  product  in 
former  chapters,  and  it  only  remains  for  me  to  show  how  it  is 
procured. 

The  long  depression  in  the  western  Sahara  bearing  the  name 
of  El  Djouf  is  a  vast  mine  of  rock  salt.  We  have  seen  that  the 
supply  first  came  out  of  Thegazza,  and  that  these  mines  were 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    253 


abandoned    in    the   sixteenth    century   for   those   of    Taoudenni, 
situated  nearer  Timbuctoo. 

Little  accustomed  as  they  are  to  smiling  pastures,  Taoudenni, 
according  to  the  people  of  the  desert,  is  one  of  the  dreariest  spots 
on  the  face  of  the  earth,  possessing  neither  trees  nor  vegeta- 
tion, while  the  little 
water  that  is  to  be 
found  there  is  salt. 
Shade,  and  water  fit 
to  drink,  must  be 
sought  at  the  wells  of 
Oued  Teli,  distant  a 
day's  journey.  Not 
even  earth  for  the  con- 
struction of  dwellings 
is  to  be  found,  houses 
and  mosques  being 
built  of  rock  salt  and 
roofed  with  camel 
skins.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  town 
subsist  upon  the  dates 
the  caravans  bring  on 

their  way  to  Timbuctoo,  and  the  cereals  and  other  provisions  they 
leave  behind  on  their  return. 

Under  a  thin  covering  of  sand  the  mineral  is  found  in  clearly 
marked  layers.  It  is  dug  out  in  large  lumps  by  slaves,  and 
trimmed  down  to  blocks  (about.  3  ft.  7  in.  by  1  ft.  3  in.),  looking 
like  bars  of  red  or  grey-veined  marble,  and  which,  as  they  come 
out  of  the  mine,  are  stamped  with  the  trade-marks  of  the 
different  contractors.  They  are  worth  from  two  to  six  francs, 


A   BLOCK   OF  SALT 


254 


TIMBUCTOO 


according  to  their  quality,  and  a  camel  can  carry  four  or  five  at 
a  time. 

Before  entering  the  Negraic  countries  they  undergo  a  regular 
toilet  at  Timbuctoo,  where  they  are  embellished  with  geometrical 


designs  in  black  paint,  and  the  name  of  some  venerated  chief 
is  written  on  them  in  Arabic  characters.  Sidi  Yaia,  the  patron 
of  Timbuctoo,  Abd1  el  Kader,  the  great  Algerian  chief,  Cheikou 
Ahmadou,  El  Hadj  Omar,  etc.,  are  honoured  in  this  fashion. 
Thus  ornamented,  they  are  bound  round  with  thongs  of  raw 
leather,  which  are  arranged  to  hold  the  fragments  together  in 
.cases  of  fracture.  The  fact  that  the  manufacture  of  these 
thongs  occupies  an  entire  branch  of  business  from  one  end  of 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    255 

the  year  to  another  will  give  some  idea  of  the  importance  of 
her  salt  trade  to  Timbuctoo. 

The  densest  and  whitest  blocks  are  the  most  in  demand, 
those  veined  with  red  being  of  an  inferior  quality.  Their  price 
in  Timbuctoo  varies  according  to  the  greater  or  less  security 
of  the  Sudanese  routes.  'There  was  a  time,1  said  the  old  men, 
'  when  these  blocks  cost  only  from  five  to  ten  francs ' ;  but  during 
my  sojourn  there  thirty  or  forty  francs  more  nearly  represented 
the  price  paid  for  them.  An  exporter  from  Jenne  and  San- 
sanding  will  purchase  five  hundred  blocks  at  a  time.  Bought  at 
thirty  francs,  for  example,  and  worth  forty-five  at  Sarafara  and 
double  at  Jenne,  they  represent  about  seventy  or  eighty  francs 


RETAILING    SALT 


apiece  at  San  or  Sansanding,  increasing  in  value  at  the  same 
rate  until  they  reach  Mossi  and  the  regions  of  Lake  Chad. 
With  such  voyages  in  prospect  the  advantage  these  bars  of 


256  TIMBUCTOO 

salt  possess  over  our  powdered  substance  is  sufficiently  obvious. 
Hard  as  stone,  and  proof  against  injury  from  moisture,  they  do 
not  suffer  from  the  loss  and  theft  to  which  our  sacks  of  salt  are 
peculiarly  liable.  The  seller  retails  them  in  small  pieces  propor- 
tioned to  the  demand.  They  often  serve  the  traveller  as  a 
means  of  barter,  for  the  Sudanese  who  declines  to  sell  his 
provisions  for  cowries,  silver,  or  even  gold,  will  never  refuse 
a  small  lump  of  salt. 

Having  completed  its  freight  at  Taoudenni,  and  paid  one 
or  several  tolls  to  the  Touaregs,  the  caravan  reaches  Timbuctoo, 
if  it  has  not  been  entirely  pillaged  by  the  way.  It  does  not 
enter  the  town,  which  would  be  seriously  encumbered  by  its 
multitude  of  camels,  but  encamps  before  the  northern  walls 
in  the  Abaradiou,  or  caravan  suburb.  This  quarter  consists  of 
groups  of  straw  cabins  surrounded  by  thorny  fences,  which 
recall  the  early  settlement  of  Touaregs  that  gave  birth  to  the 
city  of  Timbuctoo. 

The  merchants  accompanying  the  caravans  lodge  in  the 
town,  but  the  camel-drivers  find  shelter  in  the  Abaradiou.  The 
camels  are  watered  at  large  pools  lying  near,  and  are  pastured 
on  the  neighbouring  dunes,  where  the  sober-minded  animals 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    257 

find   the    camel-grass    and    other    miserable   and    thorny    vegeta- 
tion which  form  their  chief  delicacies. 

As  one  would  suppose,  the  number  and  importance  of  the 
caravans  vary  in  direct  relation  with  the  security  of  the  Sahara 
on  the  one  side  and  the  prosperity  of  the  Sudan  on  the 
other.  The  large  caravans  include  from  six  hundred  to  a 
thousand  camels  and  from  three  to  five  hundred  men,  their 
freight  representing  from  six  hundred  thousand  to  a  million 
francs'-worth  of  goods.  They  generally  arrive  from  December 
to  January  and  from  July  to  August.  Smaller  caravans  of 
sixty  or  a  hundred  camels  are  arriving  all  the  year  round,  the 
town  annually  receiving  about  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  camels. 
In  the  year  following  our  occupation  (evidently  an  abnormal 
one)  the  official  returns  only  stated  fourteen  thousand  camels. 

Like  the  burdens  of  the  camels,  the  cargoes  of  the  fleets 
comprise  two  distinct  parts.  One  portion,  destined  for  Tim- 
buctoo  and  the  towns  and  nomadic  tribes  of  the  Sahara,  consists 
principally  of  matters  of  alimentation,  such  as  millet,  rice, 
karita,  manioc,  arachides,  honey,  kola  nuts,  neta  and  baobab 
flour,  monkey-bread,  tamarinds,  onions  and  tobacco  (cheaper  and 
inferior  to  that  of  Tuat),  dried  fish,  and  in  addition,  soap,  iron, 
antimony,  cotton,  straw  hats,  potteries,  and  calabashes.  The 
other  is  specially  allotted  to  Morocco,  Tuat,  and  Ghadames, 
and  comprises  gold,  ivory,  ostrich  plumes,  raw  leather,  wax, 
incense,  civet  musk,  indigo,  gum,  etc.,  and  includes  a  few 
slaves. 

The  different  methods  of  northern  and  southern  transport  being 
now  explained,  the  commerce  of  Timbuctoo  appears  in  all  its 
simplicity.  The  camels  transfer  their  burdens  to  the  canoes,  and 
the  vessels  confide  their  cargoes  to  the  camels,  Timbuctoo  being 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    259 

the  place  of  trans-shipment.  The  city  is  merely  a  temporary 
depot,  situated  between  the  borders  of  the  desert  and  the 
copiously  watered  valleys  of  the  south,  and  is  so  completely  a 
town  of  warehouses  and  docks  that  none  of  its  merchants 
possesses  either  camel  or  boat.  What  part,  then,  do  its  people 
play  if  they  are  neither  exporters  nor  importers?  They  are 
brokers,  contractors,  and  landlords.  'The  guest  is  a  present  from 
God,1  says  an  Arabian  maxim  much  in  vogue  in  Timbuctoo,  where 
there  are  no  caravansaries.  The  inhabitant  offers  gratuitous 
board  and  lodging  to  the  stranger  merchant  for  the  first  three 


260 


TIMBUCTOO 


days,  and  interprets  the  noble  precept  in  a  disinterested  and 
elevated  manner.  There  is  a  perfectly  straightforward  under- 
standing that  at  parting  on  the  fourth  day  the  guest  shall  hire 
one  of  his  host's  houses  (some  own  as  many  as  ten  or  fifteen)  for 
the  remainder  of  his  stay.  These  dwellings  are  similar  to  the  one 
I  occupied,  and  are  large  enough  to  serve  as  warehouse  as  well  as 
habitation.  Moreover,  the  part  of  diatigui  or  landlord  does  not 

end    there;     he   is   expected 
to  instruct  the   stranger    on 
the    current    prices,    the 


UNLOADING  CAMELS 


abundance  or  scarcity  of  the  product  he  has  come  to  buy  or 
sell,  the  standing  of  any  client  who  may  offer  himself,  and 
also  to  assist  his  guest  in  making  his  purchases,  the  price  of 
lodging  thus  including  the  benefits  of  brokerage. 

I  too  made  use  of  my  landlord  according  to  custom,  asking 
him  to  advise  me  in  the  choice  of  tradespeople,  and  appealing 
to  him  in  all  my  business  transactions.  I  requested  him  to  con- 
duct me  about  the  town  as  though  I  were  some  merchant  of 
Mossi  or  Tafilalet,  and  he  led  me  through  the  markets  and 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    261 

showed  me  the  interior  of  those  crumbling  wrecks  of  houses  which 
had  so  deceived  me  on  my  arrival.  To  my  great  surprise  I  found 
well-provided  shops  under  these  ruins,  stored  with  the  most  varied 
fabrics  from  all  parts  of  Europe  and  the  Sudan,  and  contain- 
ing every  description  of  native  product.  We  pursued  the  same 
dilapidated  road  I  had  followed  on  the  first  day.  Under  the  low 
roof  of  a  hut,  open  to  the  four  winds,  we  found  a  tailor  and  his  nine 
workmen,  whose  needles  were  flying  through  blue-and-white  stuffs, 
while  an  old  greybeard  in  spectacles  read  verses  of  the  Koran  to 
them  through  his  nose.  Some  were  making  pantaloons  and  the 
ample  robes  of  the  Sudan,  while  others  were  ornamenting  them 
with  elaborate  Moorish  embroideries.  These  embroidered  robes 
(Timbuctoo's  chief  industry)  were  notorious  at  the  time  of  the 
Sudanis  greatest  prosperity,  and  her  workshops  could  barely  keep 
pace  with  the  demand  for  them.  They  were  exported  to  Morocco, 
Bammaku,  and  Gao,  and  cost  from  three  to  four  thousand  francs 
apiece.  They  are  marvels  of  taste  and  delicate  workmanship, 
with  roses  and  arabesques  on  the  back  and  front,  embroidered 
in  shining  silken  threads  that  stand  out  in  brilliant  whiteness 
from  the  raw  silk  of  the  fabric. 

Shoemakers  formerly  employed  a  similar  art  upon  the  wonder- 
ful leather  of  the  country,  the  true  marocco,  fine,  supple,  and 
light,  which  is  made  into  boots  embellished  with  green  and 
yellow  embroideries,  and  into  slippers,  cushions,  and  bindings. 
We  directed  our  steps  towards  a  cracked  and  dilapidated  house, 
whose  upper  story  had  fallen  into  fragments.  It  was  the  abode 
of  a  great  merchant,  and  before  its  closed  and  barricaded  door 
my  guide  recited  the  accustomed  discourse ;  in  spite  of  the  several 
months  of  our  occupation,  the  old  habits  of  precaution  have  not 
entirely  disappeared.  Having  passed  the  second  armoured  door, 
we  found  ourselves  in  a  courtyard  shaded  by  a  large  verandah, 


262 


TIMBUCTOO 


whose  arched  galleries  ran  round  its  four  sides,  like  the  patio  of 
Spanish  houses.  Out  in  the  streets  the  heat  was  terrific,  but  this 
court  was  agreeably  cool,  with  no  trace  of  the  external  misery  and 
ruin.  Everything  was  marvellously  clean  and  well  kept,  and  after 
the  Lasciate  ogni  speranza  of  the  exterior  it  seemed  a  paradise. 

Carpets  and  cushions  were  scattered  about  under  the  galleries, 
for  this  court  is  the  reception-room,  and  it  is  here  that  all  business 
is  transacted.  A  panther  skin  was  offered  me  for  seat,  and.  >ve 
were  served  with  tea  and  sugar  and  the  delicious  dates  of  Tuat. 


THE   GARDENS   OF   TIMBUCTOO 


After  that  we  visited  the  shop,  which  ran  across  the  entire  house, 
and  in  which  sacks  of  millet  were  heaped  upon  sacks  of  rice,  and 
blocks  of  salt  were  to  be  counted  by  the  hundreds.  Bales  of  dates 
lay  side  by  side  with  packets  of  ostrich  feathers  and  elephant 
tusks.  This  house,  outwardly  a  ruin,  contained  about  fifty 
thousand  francs'-worth  of  merchandise. 


Side  by  side  with  these   unofficial  are  the  official  brokers  or 
taifa,   who    specialise    in    certain    products,   such   as   salt,   gold, 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF    TIMBUCTOO    263 

cattle  and  textiles.  They  go  from  house  to  house,  offering 
their  services,  showing  samples,  and  explaining  prices.  On  asking 
the  number  of  the  specialists,  I  am  told,  'There  are  about 
three  hundred  who  carry  on  the  profession  from  father  to  son, 
but  all,  even  the  women  and  children,  are  brokers  in  Timbuctoo.' 

If  he  is  provided  with  the  necessary  capital,  and  sees  the 
moment  to  be  propitious,  the  native  of  Timbuctoo  is  not  above 
speculating  on  his  own  account,  and  his  operations  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  our  Bourse.  At  certain  periods  of  the  year, 
when  the  great  caravans  are  expected,  the  rich  merchants  buy 
up  all  the  chief  articles  of  commerce,  salt,  cereals  and  textiles, 
thus  causing  an  artificial  rise  in  price,  which  they  maintain  until 
their  agent  signals  the  approach  of  caravan  or  fleet.  They  also 
buy  large  quantities  of  karita,  kola  nuts,  onions,  and  other 
stores,  which  are  sold  by  children  and  slaves  in  the  markets 
and  streets. 

Falsification  and  fraud,  as  well  as  speculation,  have  long- 
been  known  and  practised  in  Timbuctoo.  An  old  writing  of 
the  time  of  Askia  the  Great  devotes  several  pages  to  the  denunci- 
ation of  false  weights  and  measures,  the  admixture  of  copper 
with  virgin  gold,  the  aeration  of  meat,  and  the  baptism  of 
milk,  etc. 

It  is  sufficiently  obvious  that  the  great  firms  of  Morocco, 
Tuat,  and  Ghadames  would,  like  Jenne  and  Sansanding,  seek  to 
relieve  themselves  of  the  onerous  intervention  of  the  native 
broker.  All  these  towns,  in  fact,  possessed  property  in  Tim- 
buctoo, and  their  representative,  a  relative  or  confidential  slave, 
was  installed  there,  the  heads  of  the  firm  paying  an  annual 
visit  in  order  to  verify  accounts  and  control  the  inventory. 
Occasionally  the  merchants  of  north  and  south  would  establish 
themselves  in  the  city,  returning  to  their  native  country  as  soon 


264 


TIMBUCTOO 


as  their  fortunes  were  made.     All  these  people  bought  and  sold 
directly  from  the  caravan. 

The  Arabian  traders  formerly  constituted  the  most  numerous, 
enterprising,  and  richest  element  of  the  city.  They  introduced 
a  system  of  banking,  and  the  traveller  could  procure  from  them 


TRADERS    FROM    THE   COUNTRY   OF    MOSSI 


letters  of  credit  for  the  whole  of  northern  Africa.  They  also 
gave  credit  to  the  dioulas,  or  travelling  negro  merchant.  All 
this  required  considerable  courage,  for  there  are  no  police  in  the 
Sudan,  and  two  or  three  years  had  often  elapsed  before  they 
saw  their  debtors  again.  Frequently  they  never  reappeared  at 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF    TIMBUCTOO    265 

all,   owing   not   so   much   to   intentional   dishonesty,   as   to   the 
numerous    wars    and    the    frequent    insecurity   of    the    different 


STREET   IN   THE   ARABIAN   QUARTER 


routes.     The  quarters   occupied   by  the  Arabs   were   called   the 
Baghinde,  and  the  population,  natives   of  Morocco,  Tuat,  and 


-J 


266  TIMBUCTOO 

Tripoli,  formerly  numbered  about  three  hundred.  They  formed 
a  colony  which  was  known  by  the  name  of  'the  community  of 
white  men,1  and  was  analogous  to  the  European  colonies  of 
Eastern  cities.  They  had  a  deputy  at  their  head,  occupying 
a  similar  position  to  our  consul,  who  was  called  '  head  of  the 
whites,1  and  who  was  always  a  member  of  the  town  council. 
On  our  entry  into  Timbuctoo,  our  officers  found  the  'head  of 
the  whites1  to  be  a  Tripolitan  named  Milad.  He  was  a  man  of 
exceptional  intelligence,  and  having  had  intercourse  with  Europeans 
in  his  own  country,  he  was  enabled,  by  his  advice  and  other 
good  offices,  to  give  material  assistance  to  our  occupation. 

Like  the  native  population,  this  Arabian  colony  fell  to  pieces 
under  the  unbearable  tyranny  of  the  Touaregs ;  but  for  all  that 
it  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  Timbuctoo  was  ever  a 
very  populous  city.  I  should  calculate  the  town  to  have  pos- 
sessed a  population  of  only  forty  or  fifty  thousand  inhabitants, 
even  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  splendour.  The  absence  and 
impracticability  of  any  local  industry  explains  a  figure  so  incon- 
siderable when  compared  with  other  great  places  of  Mussulman 
commerce,  such  as  Cairo  and  Damascus,  but  sufficiently  important 
when  we  realise  that  the  entire  population  lived  by,  and  was 
occupied  with,  commerce  alone. 

Seen  in  this  light,  the  following  figures  will  not  be  surprising. 
In  January  1895  the  statistics  show  a  turnover  of  460,000  francs, 
and  at  the  time  these  figures  were  stated  to  me  those  who  com- 
puted them  assured  me  that  they  hardly  represented  a  third  of 
the  actual  sum.  No  serious  effort  has  ever  been  made  to  obtain 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  such  things.  The  captain  of  the  port 
of  Timbuctoo  has  not  even  an  interpreter  at  his  service.  One 
has  to  be  satisfied  with  the  voluntary  declarations  made  by  the 
merchants  to  the  military  authorities  and  the  native  police  super- 


COMMERCE    AND   LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    267 

intendents  of  Kabara  and  Timbuctoo.  Even  less  than  his  Euro- 
pean confrere  does  the  African  merchant  like  to  let  the  whole 
world  into  the  secrets  of  his  affairs. 

It  is  necessary  to  mention  the  markets  that  since  our  occupa- 
tion have  been  established  by  the  timid  or  intractable  upon  the 
Lower  Niger.  Two  of  these  markets,  viz.  Keirago  and  Bamba, 


GOLD    MERCHANTS 


now  possess  a  traffic  and  population  almost  as  important  as  those 
of  Timbuctoo  itself.  All  these  causes  of  fluctuation  must  be 
taken  into  account  before  we  can  accurately  estimate  the  capa- 
bilities of  Timbuctoo.  I  believe  it  will  not  be  long  before  the 
city  will  increase  her  annual  commerce  by  twenty  millions,  that 
is  to  say,  double  the  amount  computed  in  1893  for  the  entire 
colony  of  the  French  Congo. 


268  TIMBUCTOO 

Not  only  was  Timbuctoo  the  great  commercial  centre,  it  also 
represented  a  city  of  pleasure  to  the  whole  of  western  Africa, 
and  especially  to  the  Arabs. 

I  talked  at  Senegal  with  one  of  those  Moorish  traders  who 
form  a  very  active  and  wealthy  colony  at  St.  Louis.  Being  en 
route  for  Timbuctoo,  I  naturally  did  not  forget  to  ask  him  what 
he  knew,  or  rather  had  heard,  of  the  city,  for  he  had  never 
visited  it.  '  Ah  !  you  are  going  to  Timbuctoo  ! '  he  cried,  with 
sparkling  eyes.  '  Oh !  at  Timbuctoo  there  are  ladies,  very  many 
and  very  beautiful ! '  To  his  mind  the  city  seemed  to  represent 
a  gallant  life  rather  than  business.  After  gold,  ivory,  and  ostrich 
feathers,  the  principal  attractions  of  Timbuctoo  for  the  people 
of  the  north  are  undoubtedly  the  easy  manners  prevailing  in  the 
Sudan.  This  is  also  confirmed  by  ancient  geographers. 

Leon  the  African  contents  himself  with  saying,  4  The  inhabi- 
tants of  Timbuctoo  have  gay  natures,  and  dancing  goes  on  every 
evening  until  an  advanced  hour/  He  was  writing  for  the 
Vatican,  which  may  explain  his  reserve.  Ibn  Batouba  is  more 
explicit.  He  observes  on  his  arrival  in  the  Sudan  that  '  these 
people  have  very  singular  manners.  The  men  are  not  in  the 
least  jealous  concerning  their  women-folk.  The  latter  are  not 
at  all  embarrassed  in  the  presence  of  a  man ;  and  although  they 
are  very  devout  in  their  prayers,  they  go  about  with  unveiled 
faces.  They  have  friends  and  companions  among  the  men,  and 
the  men  on  their  side  have  friends  among  the  women.  Thus  it 
often  happens  that  a  man,  on  returning  home,  finds  his  wife  enter- 
taining a  friend.  Having  received  permission  from  the  kaid  of 
Oualata  to  visit  him,  I  presented  myself  at  his  house  one  day, 
and  found  him  with  a  woman  who  was  young  and  beautiful.  I 
was  about  to  retire  upon  seeing  her,  when,  without  showing  the 
least  shame,  she  went  into  fits  of  laughter  at  my  embarrassment. 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF    TIMBUCTOO    269 

"  Do  not  go,""  said  the  kaid.  "  It  is  only  a  good  friend  of  mine." 
I  was  thunderstruck  at  seeing  a  jurisconsult,  a  scholar,  and  a  man 
who  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  behaving  in  such  a  manner. 
I  learned  later  that  he  had  applied  to  the  sultan  for  permission  to 
make  the  pilgrimage  that  same  year  in  company  with  his  good 
friend !  Upon  another  occasion  I  visited  a  man,  and  found  him 
seated  on  a  rug  while  his  wife  occupied  a  chair  and  was  con- 
versing with  a  man  who  was  sitting  beside  her.  "  Who  is  that 
woman  ?  "  I  asked.  "  She  is  my  wife,"  he  replied.  "  And  who  is 
the  man  sitting  beside  her  ?  "  "  That  is  a  friend  of  hers."  "  How 
can  you  suffer  such  a  thing  ? "  I  indignantly  asked ;  "  you  who 
have  lived  in  our  countries  of  the  north,  and  know  the  rules  of 
the  Koran."  "  With  us,"  he  replied,  "  women  have  friendships  that 
are  in  every  way  honourable,  and  no  suspicion  is  ever  aroused,  for 
our  women  are  not  like  those  of  your  country."  I  was  so  dis- 
gusted by  his  folly  that  I  instantly  quitted  his  house,  and  have 
never  set  foot  in  it  again/ 

It  was  towards  1350  that  Ibn  Batouba  was  so  scandalised  by 
the  manners  of  Oualata,  and  history  has  shown  us  that  Timbuctoo 
was  developed  by  the  immigration  thither  of  the  people  of  the 
former  town.  Merchants  and  scholars  would  naturally  import 
their  manners  as  well  as  their  commerce,  wealth,  and  science. 

In  a  chapter  entitled,  '  All  that  I  found  of  evil  in  the  conduct 
of  the  blacks,1  the  same  author  continues,  '  The  slaves,  male  and 
female,  and  the  young  girls,  appear  in  the  streets  quite  nude.  I 
saw  a  great  number  thus  even  in  the  month  of  Ramadan.  It 
is  the  custom  for  all  great  personages  to  break  their  fast  with 
the  sultan,  and  for  this  purpose  they  send  parties  of  twenty  or 
more  young  slaves  to  carry  the  provisions  to  the  palace.  They 
appear  before  the  sultan  quite  nude,  and  his  own  daughters  do  the 
same.  The  evening  before  Ramadan  I  saw  several  slaves  with  food 


270  TIMBUCTOO 

leave  the  palace  accompanied  by  two  of  the  sultan's  daughters, 
and  they  likewise  wore  no  clothes.? 

Ibn  Batouba  was  a  highly  cultured  man,  as  pious  as  he  was 
learned,  and  deeply  imbued  with  the  veiled  manners  of  Islam. 
Such  customs  could  but  shock  and  move  to  wrath  a  mind  thus 
educated,  but  their  effect  upon  the  vulgar,  the  merchants  and  their 
clerks  and  camel-drivers,  would  probably  be  different.  Bred  in  the 
Arabian  world,  in  which  men  and  women  lived  absolutely  separate 
lives,  and  in  which  the  latter  disguise  not  only  their  form  but  even 
their  features  under  heavy  draperies,  the  spectacle  of  such  manners 
must  have  been  to  them  both  novel  and  curious.  They  would  not 
experience  the  repulsion  of  the  learned  Ibn  Batouba,  but  would  mix 
with  this  life  and  enjoy  the  new  customs  that  in  their  own 
countries  would  raise  a  blush  to  their  cheeks.  Timbuctoo  would 
soon  be  surrounded  by  a  halo  in  their  minds  as  being,  upon 
earth,  one  little  corner  of  the  paradise  promised  by  Mahomet. 
Askia  the  Great,  having  observed  the  Mohammedan  practices  of 
Egypt,  attempted  several  reforms.  The  women  were  compelled  to 
drape  themselves  from  head  to  foot  and  adopt  the  life  of  the  harem. 
He  also  established  a  '  body  of  men  charged  to  exercise  a  constant 
surveillance,  and  to  arrest  and  imprison  any  man  found  talking  to 
a  strange  woman  after  nightfall/  These  measures  fell  into  disuse 
under  the  sons  of  the  great  king,  and  the  manners  of  the  country 
relapsed  into  their  accustomed  freedom. 

Ibn  Batouba's  description  of  Timbuctoo  being  amply  sufficient, 
I  prefer  to  speak  of  the  women  of  the  city,  that  is  to  say,  those  of 
its  aristocratic  families.  By  reason  of  continual  intermarriage 
with  the  Berber  and  Arab  races,  their  features  have  become  more 
regular  and  considerably  refined.  Although  they  are  black  in 
colour  they  approximate  more  to  the  Aryan  type  than  the  Negraic  ; 
the  flatness  of  the  nose  and  mouth  is  much  less  noticeable,  and  the 


A  LADY   OF  TIMBUCTOO 


272  TIMBUCTOO 

whole  face  is  pleasantly  lighted  by  wonderful  eyes,  whose  gentle, 
intelligent  glance  seems  to  enfold  you. 

These  natural  charms  are  supplemented  by  the  arts  of  coquetry. 
Their  foreheads  are  charmingly  adorned  with  bands  of  pearls  and 
sequins,  and  the  most  accomplished  hairdressers  arrange  their 
tresses  in  wonderful  top-knots  interspersed  with  ornaments  of 
golden  filagree.  Ear-rings  of  the  sarfie  precious  metal  dangle  from 
their  ears,  and  necklaces  of  gold,  coral,  or  amber  are  wound  round 
their  throats;  they  also  embellish  their  nails  with  henna  and 
darken  their  eyes  with  antimony.  Above  all,  they  know  how  to 
drape  themselves  tastefully  in  the  various  kinds  of  stuff  which 
are  to  be  found  in  Timbuctoo — European,  Arabian,  and  native 
fabrics. 

Unlike  her  negro  sister,  the  woman  of  Timbuctoo  plays  the 
part  of  great  lady.  She  transfers  the  household  work  and  the  care 
of  her  children  to  slaves,  contenting  herself  with  seeing  that  her 
orders  are  carried  out.  She  employs  her  time  in  reading  and 
playing  upon  the  violin  (whose  sole  string  is  made  of  camel's  hair), 
visiting  her  friends  and — smoking  pipes,  for  no  one  is  perfect. 

Over,  and  above  these  mondaines,  Timbuctoo  possesses  her 
demi-mondaineSi  who  imitate  the  former  in  all  things.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  account  of  fashionable  life  given  me  by  one  of  its 
members : — 

*  Business  here  allows  of  plenty  of  leisure;  we  have  to  wait  until 
certain  articles  have  arrived,  or  until  others  have  diminished  or 
risen  in  price.  The  stranger  merchant,  in  order  to  amuse 
himself,  gathers  his  friends  together  at  mid-day,  or  in  the 
evening  by  preference,  and  offers  them  a  repast.  They  eat 
fat  sheep,  pigeons,  kuss-kuss,  dates,  kola  nuts,  wheaten  biscuits, 
and  honey-cakes.  They  drink  tea,  and  sometimes  coffee. 
Marabuts  (to  whom  some  present  has  been  made  beforehand) 


COMMERCE    AND    LIFE    OF   TIMBUCTOO    273 

are  invited,  and  delight  the  assembly  with  their  old-world 
histories.  Each  guest  also  tells  some  tale  of  his  native  country, 
and  it  is  by  these  means  we  know  so  well,  not  only  what  is  passing 
in  Morocco,  Tuat,  and  Tripoli,  but  all  that  is  going  on  in  Europe 
and  France  also.  These  little  fetes  have  become  less  frequent  in 
the  present  time  of  misfortune.  Formerly  one  used  to  receive  an 
invitation  nearly  every  day.  Many  Arabs  from  the  north  lived  in 
Timbuctoo  then,  and  one  might  have  built  houses  of  lumps  of 
sugar,  such  great  quantities  of  it  were  brought  here  by  the  cara- 
vans. The  people  of  Ghadames,  Tunis,  and  Fez  liked  to 
live  well.  They  taught  their  slaves  the  art  of  preparing 
very  elaborate  and  varied  dishes,  pastries,  and  sweets  ; 
so  much  incense  was  burned  and  such  great 
quantities  of  attar  of  roses  were 
sprinkled  about  the  houses  that 
you  were  seized  with 
headache  on  the 
doorstep. 

'The  most 
costly  fetes  were 
those  given  to  the 
women.  The  people 
of  Jenne,  Sansand- 
ing,  and  Bammaku 
rivalled  the  Arabs, 
but  the  people  of  A  BAKEHOUSE 

IN   THE    STRKK1 

Tuat  were  the  most 
extragavant.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Mossi  did  not  squander 
their  money  in  this  fashion,  but  left  the  town  as  soon  as  their 
business  was  concluded. 

4  Those   who  had   mistresses   gave  feasts  which    lasted   many 

x 


274 


TIMBUCTOO 


hours,  much  intoxicating  liquid  was. consumed,  and  the  men  became 
as  drunk  as  the  idolatrous  Bambarras.  Musicians  were  sent  for, 
dancing  began  and  was  prolonged  through  the  night.  Men 
would  spend  two  or  three  hundred  gold  pieces  in  disputing  a 
mistress  with  a  rival.  A  merchant  of  Sansanding  is  said  to  have 
made  his  lady  a  present  of  five  hundred  blocks  of  salt.  This 
man  lived  near  the  mosque,  and  having  passed  the  night  in 
feasting  he  wished  to  sleep  during  the  day,  and  had  the  audacity 
to  say  to  the  muezzin  who  calls  the  faithful  to  the  five  daily 
prayers,  "  I  am  very  tired,  your  voice  will  disturb  me.  If  I  do 
not  hear  you  throughout  the  day,  I  will  make  a  rich  offering  to 
the  mosque.11 

'Many  people  who  only  came  to  stay  a  few  weeks  would  pro- 
long their  visit  for  months  and  years,  detained  either  by  the 
agreeable  life  of  the  town  or  some  passion  ;  and  many  who  arrived 
with  a  fortune  returned  home  ruined.1 


CHAPTER    XIII 

THE    UNIVEIISITY    OF    SANKORE 

THE  Queen  of  the  Sudan  would  have  been  adorned  with  an 
imperfect  diadem  if  the  crowning  glory  of  Art  had  been  wanting. 

Insuperable  objections  prevented  her  possession  of  monuments. 
Neither  wood  nor  stone  existed  in  her  neighbourhood,  not  even 
plaster  was  at  her  disposal,  and  the  priceless  clay  of  Jenne  is  not 
to  be  found  on  the  threshold  of  the  desert.  These  facts  are 
sufficient  excuse  for  my  not  giving  a  long  account  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  great  mosques  of  Timbuctoo  (Gingharaber  and 
Sankore)  and  the  oratory  of  Sidi  Yaia.  The  dimensions  of  these 
buildings  greatly  exceed  those  of  the  ordinary  dwellings ;  but  a 
mere  collection  of  walls,  more  or  less  high,  long  and  thick,  can 
scarcely  be  called  a  work  of  art,  and  nothing  in  these  temples 
recalls  the  happy  decorative  harmony  of  the  old  mosque  of  Jenne. 
In  a  distant  view  of  the  city,  their  three  minarets,  looking  like 
abbreviated  pyramids,  represent  their  only  interest.1 

Unable,  therefore,  to  develop  the  sensuous  arts,  Timbuctoo 
reserved  all  her  strength  for  the  intellectual,  and  here  her 
dominion  was  supreme.  The  city  became  the  religious,  scientific, 

1  The  King  of  Mali  erected  a  palace  at  Timbuctoo  in  the  fourteenth  century.  But 
palaces  have  a  precarious  existence  in  the  Sudan,  and  by  the  sixteenth  century  it 
had  disappeared.  Its  ruins,  forming  a  compact  hillock  in  the  west  of  the  town,  are 
now  used  as  a  slaughter-house. 

275 


276  TIMBUCTOO 

and  literary  centre  of  the  Nigerian  regions.  4  Salt  comes  from 
the  north,  gold  from  the  south,  and  silver  from  the  country  of 
the  white  men,  but  the  word  of  God  and  the  treasures  of  wisdom 
are  only  to  be  found  in  Timbuctoo,''  says  an  old  Sudanese 
proverb. 

It  would  perhaps  be  an  exaggeration  to  put  the  school  of 
Timbuctoo  on  a  level  with  those  of  Syria,  Spain,  Morocco,  and, 
above  all,  Egypt ;  for  I  must  admit  that  I  have  not  found  among 
her  libraries  any  work  equal  in  literary  glory  to  those  master- 
pieces of  the  Arabian  language  and  intellect — the  Hariri,  the 
Hamadani)  or  the  Bedouin  Kaisadas.  For  all  that,  Timbuctoo 
was  not  merely  the  great  intellectual  nucleus  of  the  Sudan,  that 
is  to  say,  of  the  negroes — she  was  also  one  of  the  great  scientific 
centres  of  Islam  itself,  her  university  being  the  younger  sister  of 
those  of  Cairo,  Cordova,  Fez,  and  Damascus.  Her  collection  of 
ancient  manuscripts  leaves  us  in  no  doubt  upon  the  point,  and 
permits  us  to  reconstruct  this  side  of  her  past  in  its  smallest 
details. 

It  is  in  Eastern  Africa  that  the  origin  of  the  intellectual 
glory  of  Timbuctoo  must  be  sought,  and  it  is  to  the  Moors 
that  it  must  be  attributed.  We  know  that  this  fraction  of  the 
Berber  peoples  adopted  the  religion  of  their  Arabian  conquerors, 
and  it  was  through  the  Moorish  tribes  who  ranged  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  that  Islamism  penetrated  to  the  country  of  the 
blacks  in  the  ninth  century.  Wherever  the  Mussulman  religion 
found  foothold  it  was  invariably  followed  by  the  language  of 
the  Koran  and  the  Arabian  sciences.  The  holy  book  contained, 
or  should  contain,  everything  needful  for  a  disciple  of  Mahomet. 
It  gave  laws  to  man  and  regulated  his  faith,  whether  religious 
or  philosophical.  The  Koran  was  a  code  in  which  everything 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKORE        277 

was  decreed — so  much  so,  indeed,  that  to  elucidate  it  was  to 
teach  religion,  philosophy,  and  law.  Grammar  and  literature 
were  also  founded  on  it,  for  they  were  taught  on  the  lines  of 
the  language  employed  by  the  editor  of  the  holy  book  and 
illustrated  by  examples  taken  from  it. 

Thus  the  Arabian  language  and  culture  spread  over  the 
frontiers  of  the  negro  countries.  Oualata,  '  where  the  holiest 
and  most  learned  men  resided,'  became  its  bulwark ;  and  upon 
the  emigration  of  her  people  to  Timbuctoo,  the  latter  town 
became  the  palladium  of  the  faith.  The  Moorish  poets  and 
scholars  of  Spain  brought  with  them  the  harvests  of  Grenada 
and  Cordova.  The  caravans  from  the  north  spread  abroad 
the  progress  of  Fez,  Marrakesh,  and  Tunis ;  and  the  annual 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  Medina  proved  the  means  of  dissemi- 
nating the  many  advantages  of  Cairo.  Timbuctoo,  more  than  any 
other  town,  was  enabled  to  profit  by  the  conquests  of  Arabian 
intellect  and  to  collect  and  arrange  large  libraries.  Market  of 
merchandise  as  she  was,  she  also  became  the  storehouse  of  the 
Arabian  language  and  science,  spreading  them  afar  with  her 
textiles  and  salt. 

The  confusion  of  tongues  prevailing  in  the  metropolis  of 
the  Sudan  necessitated  a  common  language,  and  Songhois, 
Foulbes,  Toucouleurs,  Touaregs,  Bambarras,  Mossi,  Haouss- 
ankas,  Malinkas,  etc.,  all  used  Arabic  as  the  vehicle  of  a 
mutual  comprehension. 

An  entire  class  of  the  population  was  devoted  to  the  study 
of  letters,  being  called  fakirs  or  sheiks  by  the  old  manu- 
scripts, and  marabuts  by  the  Sudanese  of  to-day.  The  first 
term  carries  the  meaning  of  jurist,  'those  who  know  the  law/ 
and  is  interesting,  as  it  proves  that  the  scientific  movement 
originated  from  the  study  of  the  judicial  principles  contained 


278  TIMBUCTOO 

in  the  Koran.  The  name  sheik  or  marabut  is  preferable  for 
present  use,  as  it  signifies  both  priest  and  doctor,  and  therefore 
better  expresses  the  dual  character  of  the  Sudanese  scholar. 

The  marabut  is  a  man  who,  by  his  devotion  to  Islam  and 
his  application  of  the  duties  indicated  by  the  Koran,  by  his 
profound  knowledge  of  the  holy  writ,  His  learning  and  the 
dignity  of  his  personal  life,  sets  an  example  to  all  true 
believers.  He  belongs  in  general  to  a  family  which,  so  to 
speak,  makes  a  profession  of  devotion  and  science ;  this  twofold 
reputation  descends  from  father  to  son,  and  is  sustained  by 
pilgrimages  to  the  holy  places  and  sojourns  in  the  great 
Arabian  universities.  We  possess  the  biographies  of  several 
hundreds  of  these  learned  men,  and  all  are  related  to  one 
another  in  a  more  or  less  direct  line.  A  cerebral  refinement 
was  thus  produced  among  a  certain  proportion  of  the  negraic 
population  which  has  had  surprising  results,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  and  which  gives  the  categorical  lie  to  the  theorists  who 
insist  upon  the  inferiority  of  the  black  races. 

These  pious  and  cultured  families  of  Timbuctoo  lived 
within  the  precincts  of  the  mosque  of  Sankore,  and  formed  a 
locality  analogous  to  the  Quartier  Latin  of  Paris.  They  were 
held  in  great  esteem  by  both  dignitaries  and  people.  '  The 
learned  Ahmed  (father  to  Ahmed  Baba  the  writer)  was 
attacked  by  a  dangerous  illness.  In  order  to  render  homage 
to  the  merits  and  piety  of  this  holy  man,  the  sultan  went 
every  evening  to  pass  several  hours  by  his  bed  of  suffering,  con- 
tinuing this  assiduity  until  the  pious  sheik  was  completely 
recovered.1  For  a  long  time  a  portion  of  the  taxes  (the  diaka 
or  tenth)  was  reserved  for  these  marabuts.  The  Songhoi  kings 
pensioned  the  most  celebrated,  and  they  received  many  gifts, 
especially  in  the  month  of  Ramadan.  They  were  intrusted 


280  TIMBUCTOO 

with  the  education  of  children,  and,  to  ensure  them  the  tran- 
quillity so  necessary  to  the  man  of  thought  and  letters,  their 
affairs  were  managed  and  their  properties  cultivated  by  their 
slaves. 

Each  marahut  followed  his  special  vocation.  Some  confined 
themselves  to  the  study  of  religion  and  the  service  of  God  and 
the  mosque,  others  practised  law,  becoming  magistrates  or  kadi, 
and  a  great  number  consecrated  their  lives  to  the  art  of 
teaching.  It  was  not  unusual  to  see  two,  or  even  all  three,  of 
these  professions  united  in  one  person,  and  the  study  of  books 
and  the  art  of  writing  them  were  pursued  by  all. 

Having  already  described  the  rich  metropolis  and  the  city 
of  pleasure,  we  will  now,  with  the  aid  of  the  marabuts  who 
consecrated  themselves  to  God,  resuscitate  that  Holy  City  of 
which  the  Tarik  proudly  says,  'Never  has  Timbuctoo  been 
sullied  by  the  worship  of  idols  nor  by  rendering  homage  to 
any  other  deity  than  the  merciful  God.  It  is  the  dwelling-place 
of  wise  men,  the  servants  of  the  Most  High,  and  the  perpetual 
habitation  of  saints  and  ascetics.' 

The  marabuts,  under  the  direction  of  the  Sheik  ul  Islam 
and  the  imans,  called  the  faithful  to  prayers,  held  public  read- 
ings of  the  sacred  writings,  and  preached  during  the  month  of 
Ramadan,  the  great  Mussulman  fast.  Some,  like  the  recluses 
of  the  Thebaid,  withdrew  from  the  world  and  fasted  incessantly. 
They  passed  entire  nights  in  prayer  in  the  mosque,  and  were 
full  of  care  and  pity  for  orphans.  Others — but  let  us  rather 
admire  the  perfect  picture  given  in  the  original. 

'The  very  learned  and  pious  sheik,  Abou  Abdallah,  had  no 
property,  all  his  goods  went  to  succour  the  poor  and  unhappy,  and 
he  bought  slaves  that  he  might  give  them  their  liberty.  His 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKORE        281 

house  had  no  door,  every  one  entered  unannounced,  and  men 
came  to  see  him  from  all  parts  and  at  all  hours,  especially  on 
Sundays  after  the  two  o'clock  prayer.  Moors  and  Arabs  flocked 
to  him  in  crowds  as  soon  as  they  learned  his  virtues/ 

We  might  be  reading  the  life  of  some  Christian  saint;  and 
numerous  miracles  are  not  lacking  to  complete  the  resemblance. 
The  following  was  accomplished  by  a  marabut  who  lived  some- 
where about  the  year  1330  :  '  The  fakir  El  Hadj,  grandfather  of 
the  Kadi  Abderrahman,  was  living  in  Bankou  when  the  king  of 
Mali  attacked  that  town.  The  people  gathered  round  him  before 
going  to  battle,  and  he  instructed  them  to  eat  of  a  certain  herb. 
With  the  exception  of  one  man,  all  did  as  they  were  directed. 
Then  said  El  Hadj,  "Go  forth  to  battle,  and  the  arrows  of  the 
enemy  shall  have  no  power  to  hurt  you."  They  all  returned  safe 
and  victorious,  with  the  exception  of  the  man  who  would  not  eat, 
and  he  had  died  in  the  contest.1  A  no  less  extraordinary  incident 
happened  to  the  great-great-grandfather  of  the  celebrated  writer 
Ahmed  Baba.  6  Being  in  Medina  (Arabia),  he  asked  permission  to 
visit  the  tornb  of  the  Prophet.  This  grace  being  denied  to  him,  he 
sat  down  upon  the  threshold  and  recited  the  litanies  of  God's 
elect.  The  door  immediately  opened  of  its  own  accord,  and  the 
priests,  amazed  by  this  marvel,  humiliated  themselves  before  him 
and  kissed  his  hands.' 

The  life  of  Sidi  Yaia,  the  patron  of  Timbuctoo,  is  particularly 
full  of  miracles.  One  day,  as  he  was  holding  an  open-air  reading 
of  the  Koran,  a  cloud  appeared  overhead  and  rain  fell.  The  rain 
being  followed  by  a  clap  of  thunder,  his  disciples  arose  to  seek 
shelter.  '  Remain  in  your  places,1  said  Sidi  Yaia,  '  it  will  not 
rain  upon  this  spot.'  And  thus  it  happened.'  The  following 
anecdote  is  equally  remarkable :  '  His  female  slaves  wished  to 
cook  a  fish,  and  for  a  whole  day  they  submitted  it  to  the  action  of 


282  TIMBUCTOO 

the  fire  without  result.  The  women  were  astounded,  but  Sidi 
Yaia,  overhearing  their  talk,  said  to  them,  "  As  I  went  to  pray 
in  the  mosque  this  morning  my  foot  touched  something  moist ;  it 
was  probably  your  fish,  for  that  which  my  body  has  touched  fire 
has  no  power  to  burn  ! " 

Miracles  being  so  plentiful,  it  will  surprise  no  one  to  learn 
that  the  marabuts  were  on  equally  familiar  terms  with  prophecies 
and  visions.  The  departure  from  Marrakesh  of  the  Moorish  army 
which  was  to  conquer  the  Sudan  was  announced  on  the  same  day 
to  the  people  of  Timbuctoo  by  the  fakir  Abderrahman. 
'  After  reciting  the  morning  prayer,"  says  the  Tarik^  '  he  invoked 
the  name  of  Allah  three  times,  and  said,  "  This  year  thou  shalt 
hear  many  things,  the  like  of  which  thou  hast  never  heard,  and 
thou  shalt  see  many  things,  the  like  of  which  thou  hast  never 
seen!"1 

In  the  early  part  of  Sidi  Yaia^s  life,  Mahomet  was  wont  to 
appear  to  him  every  night,  but  as  he  grew  older  these  visits  became 
less  frequent,  until  finally  the  Prophet  only  appeared  to  him  once 
a  year.  When  asked  the  reason  of  this  remissness,  Sidi  Yaia 
replied,  '  The  only  reason  which  occurs  to  me  is,  that  formerly  I 
paid  no  attention  to  trade,  and  now  I  devote  a  good  deal  of 
time  to  it."  'But  why  do  you  do  so?1  'Because  I  have  no 
wish  to  be  dependent  on  others,1  answered  the  saint. 

Mohammed  Neddo,  who  governed  Timbuctoo  in  the  name  of 
the  Touaregs  shortly  before  its  conquest  by  Sunni  Ali,  was  on 
very  intimate  terms  with  Sidi  Yaia.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life 
it  was  shown  to  Neddo  in  a  dream  that  though  the  sun  had  set 
the  moon  had  not  risen.  This  portentous  vision  was  imparted  to 
his  friend,  who  said,  'Art  thou  afraid  to  learn  the  meaning  of 
this  dream  ?  **  'I  am  not  afraid,1  was  the  reply.  '  It  signifies,  then, 
that  I  shall  die  very  soon,  and  that  you  will  die  shortly  after.1 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKOR^        283 

Neddo  was  overcome  with  sadness.  '  Art  thou  afraid  ?'  asked  Sidi 
Yaia.  '  This  sadness  is  not  caused  by  fear  of  death,1  answered 
Neddo,  'but  by  the  great  love  I  bear  for  my  little  children." 
6  Confide  them  to  God,1  said  the  prophet.  Sidi  Yaia  died  shortly 
after  this,  and  Neddo  soon  followed  him,  and  was  buried  by  the 
side  of  his  friend  in  the  mosque  he  had  built. 

The  marks  of  divine  favour  by  which  Allah  distinguished  his 
marabuts  from  other  believers  were  even  manifested  after  death. 
A  certain  sheik  had  given  instructions  that  only  one  of  his 
disciples  should  be  permitted  to  prepare  his  funeral  toilet.  When 
the  time  came  the  disciple  found  a  lighted  taper  by  the  side  of  the 
corpse.  He  commanded  that  it  should  be  extinguished  and  the 
grave-clothes  brought.  When  the  winding-sheet  was  spread  over 
the  body  it  immediately  gave  forth  such  a  marvellous  light  that 
the  whole  chamber  was  illuminated  by  it. 

The  old  chronicles  relate  a  thousand  incidents  as  remarkable  in 
every  way  as  those  I  have  just  quoted.  A  learned  doctor  of 
Timbuctoo  was  justified  in  saying,  'The  holy  men  of  this  city  were 
not  surpassed  in  piety  by  the  companions  of  the  Prophet."  These 
pious  individuals  were  called  Oualiou,  and  men  of  evil  life,  who 
found  their  last  moments  full  of  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  requested 
that  they  might  be  buried  near  these  saints,  in  order  that  the 
departed  should  intercede  for  them  with  the  Most  High.  Pilgrim- 
ages were  made  to  their  houses  and  their  gardens.  Miracles  were 
asked  for,  and  granted,  because — well,  because  there  is  no 
reason  why  they  should  not  be  granted  when  asked  for  by  true 
believers. 

North,  south,  east,  and  west  of  the  town,  upon  the  crests  of 
the  dunes,  are  built  the  little  chapels  which  mark  their  graves  and 
form  a  rampart  of  sanctity  round  the  city.  Wishing  to  visit 
these  dunes,  in  memory  of  the  charming  tales  which  had  grown 


284 


TIMBUCTOO 


out  of  the  dust  of  those  who  slept  there,  my  servant  and  I  sallied 
forth  one  morning,  with  Winchesters  duly  charged  in  readiness  for 
the  Touaregs.  Scarcely  a  dozen  of  these  edicules  are  still  standing 
under  the  sickly  shade  cast  by  a  few  of  the  consumptive  trees  of 
the  desert.  We  found  an  old  man  before  one  of  them,  a  marabut 
of  the  present  who  had  come  to  visit  his  brothers  of  the  past. 
He  had  opened  the  door  of  one  of  the  little  chapels,  and  its 
interior  showed  a  small  clay  mound  covered  with  pieces  of  a 
coarse  stuff.  Sitting  on  the  threshold,  the  old  man  quavered  a 
few  verses  from  the  Koran. 

It  was  the  only  sound  we  heard,  and  he  was  the  only  living 
being  we  met  in  the  white  furnace  of  the  sands,  the  vast  field 
of  death  which  surrounds  the  city.  At  every  step  the  foot  knocked 
against  some  skull,  tibia,  or  even  an  entire  skeleton,  the  remains 
of  bygone  generations,  and  of  corpses  confided  yesterday  to  the 
inconstant  sands,  and  disinterred  to-day  by  the  wild  beasts  of 
the  desert.  The  sternness  and  sterility  of  the  desert,  and  the 


THE   TOMBS   SURROUNDING   TIMBUCTOO 


accumulated  death  encircling  me,  recalled  the  vision  of  the  Valley 
of  Jehoshaphat  spreading  before  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  the  Holy, 
whose  soil,  like  this,  produces  only  an  efflorescence  of  death. 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKOR^        285 

The  marabuts,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  law, 
administered  justice  according  to  the  precepts  of  the  Koran  and 
the  decisions  contained  in  the  most  important  works  of  the 
Arabian  jurists.  They  also  made  inventories  of  property,  deter- 
mining its  succession,  and  generally  filling  the  position  of  lawyer. 

The  scholars  of  Timbuctoo  yielded  in  nothing  to  the  saints 
and  their  miracles.  During  their  sojourns  in  the  foreign  uni- 
versities of  Fez,  Tunis,  and  Cairo,  '  they  astounded  the  most 
learned  men  of  Islam  by  their  erudition."  That  these  negroes 
were  on  a  level  with  the  Arabian  savants  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  they  were  installed  as  professors  in  Morocco  and  Egypt.  In 
contrast  to  this  we  find  that  the  Arabs  were  not  always  equal  to 
the  requirements  of  Sankore.  'A  celebrated  jurist  of  Hedjaz 
(Arabia),  arriving  in  Timbuctoo  with  the  intention  of  teaching, 
found  the  town  full  of  Sudanese  scholars.  Observing  them  to  be 
his  superiors  in  knowledge,  he  withdrew  to  Fez,  where  he  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  employment.'' 

The  profession  of  teaching  was  absolutely  free,  its  only  qualifi- 
cation consisting  of  a  sufficiently  large  audience.  If  one  may 
believe  their  biographies,  these  masters  were  of  rare  merit,  full 
of  kindliness  and  goodwill  towards  their  pupils,  and  keenly  alive 
to  the  responsibilities  of  their  position.  They  would  refuse  the 
exalted  and  lucrative  post  of  iman  in  order  to  continue  their 
profession.  One  of  them  '  multiplied  obstacles  to  avoid  being 
made  Grand  Kadi/ 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  daily  occupations  of 
Mohammed  ben  Abou  Bakr,  one  of  the  most  respected  scholars 
of  his  day:  6  He  gave  lectures  on  different  subjects  from  early 
morning  until  ten  o'clock.  After  returning  home  for  prayer  he 
went  to  the  kadi  to  settle  the  affairs  of  his  clients  and  act  as 
mediator  between  disputants.  He  recited  the  midday  prayer  in 


286 


TIMBUCTOO 


public,  and  taught  in  his  own  house  until  three  o'clock  ;  he  then 
said  the  prayer  of  asr,  and  went  out  to  teach  in  a  different 
place  until  dusk,  and  after  sunset  he  gave  a  final  lecture  in  the 
mosque.** 

Here  is  the  portrait  of  a  professor  of  whom  it  was  written, 


TOMB   OF   A   SAINT 


4  The  Sudan  did  not  possess  another  as  learned  and  pious/  He 
was  endowed  with  every  imaginable  gift,  and  was,  in  fact,  none 
other  than  Sidi  Yaia  himself,  the  patron  of  Timbuctoo  ;  and  we 
shall  see  him  under  the  triple  aspect  of  saint,  kadi,  and  scholar  : — 
4  He  was  gifted  with  a  calm  intelligence  which  was  only 
equalled  by  his  infallible  memory.  His  science  was  universal, 
his  whole  personality  commanded  respect  and  obedience,  and 
many  men  owned  no  other  rule  of  conduct  than  the  precepts 
which  fell  from  his  lips.  People  came  in  crowds  to  ask  his 
blessing,  bringing  with  them  gifts  of  considerable  value.  He 
received  all  these  visitors  with  great  modesty,  and  invariably 
gave  their  presents  away  to  others.  On  being  elected  kadi  he 
abolished  many  of  the  abuses  and  corrupt  practices  of  the  tribunal, 
and  was  a  model  of  equity  in  the  eyes  of  all  true  believers.  The 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKOR^        287 

pressing  duties  of  magistracy  in  no  way  abated  his  ardour  for 
teaching,  and  by  his  eloquence  he  charmed  all  who  listened  to 
him.  What  clearness  of  explanation  !  How  sure  and  easy  a 
guide  was  his  method  !  Such  an  intellect  was  surely  created  to 
revolutionise  ! '  Sidi  Yaia,  in  fact,  resuscitated  the  sciences  in  the 
negro  countries,  and  instructed  many  young  men  who  afterwards 
distinguished  themselves  in  letters.  His  life  was  as  long  as  it  was 
useful;  he  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty-seven  (1373-1462),  and  was 
employed  in  teaching  during  fifty  of  those  years. 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  insist  that  these  learned  men  must 
have  possessed  marvellous  libraries,  for  their  catalogues  are  men- 
tioned by  the  Sudanese  authors.  Religious,  judicial,  and  gram- 
matical works  occupy  the  first  place.  They  consist  of  collections 
of  traditions  concerning  the  Prophet,  such  as  the  Sahih  of  Bokhari, 
the  Djana  of  Essoyouti,  the  Sahih  of  Moslem,  and  the  Sogra,  in 
which  the  author  says  that,  having  been  transported  to  Paradise, 
he  saw  Abraham  engaged  in  teaching  little  children  and  setting 
them  copies  to  write.  The  Alfyga  is  a  grammatical  treatise,  and 
the  Chemail  of  Termedi  contains  a  description  of  the  qualities 
of  the  Prophet,  his  private  life  and  policy.  Finally,  works  on 
law  are  represented  by  the  doctrines  of  the  sect  of  Iman  Malek, 
including  the  numerous  commentaries  to  which  they  gave  birth, 
the  abridgment  of  Sidi  Khalil,  the  Risala  of  Abou  -  Zaid  of 
Kairwan,  etc. 

Poetry  and  works  of  imagination  are  not  lacking,  nor  com- 
positions of  a  kind  peculiar  to  Arabian  literature ;  such  as  the 
Hariri  and  Hamadani.  I  found  a  copy  of  the  Choice  of 
Marvels,  composed  at  Mossul  by  the  learned  Abu  Abdallah  ben 
Abderrahim  of  Grenada  in  the  year  1160.  The  historical  and 
geographical  works  of  Morocco,  Tunis,  and  Egypt  were  well  known 
in  Timbuctoo  (Ibn  Batouba  being  often  quoted),  and  the  pure 


288  TIMBUCTOO 

sciences  were  represented  by  books  on  astronomy  and  medicine. 
In  short,  the  libraries  of  Timbuctoo  may  be  said  to  have  included 
almost  the  whole  of  Arabian  literature. 

Amongst  other  trades,  the  city  made  a  speciality  of  manu- 
scripts. 'Books  sell  very  well  there,"  said  Leon  the  African, 
4  and  a  greater  profit  is  to  be  made  out  of  them  than  out  of  any 
other  merchandise.1  The  learned  doctors  were,  to  use  an  expres- 
sion which  may  appear  strange  when  applied  to  negroes,  biblio- 
philes. In  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  be  it  understood  ;  they  had 
no  mania  for  collecting  uncut  books  and  bindings,  but  were  true 
lovers  of  books.  We  see  them  '  searching  with  a  real  passion  for 
volumes  they  did  not  possess,'  and  making  copies  when  they  were 
too  poor  to  buy  what  they  wanted.  They  would  in  this  manner 
collect  from  seven  hundred  to  two  thousand  volumes;  and  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  miserly  book-lovers  of  our  day,  these 
bibliophiles  experienced  a  real  joy  in  sharing  their  most  precious 
manuscripts  with  others.  6  Abou  Bakr  loved  the  friends  of  science, 
and  paid  them  every  sort  of  attention.  He  would  lend  them  his 
most  cherished  books  and  never  ask  for  them  back  again,  however 
rare  they  might  be.  He  lavished  his  entire  library  in  this  manner 
(may  Allah  reward  him  !) ;  the  student  who  came  to  his  door  to 
borrow  was  never  denied,  and  this  is  the  more  remarkable,  as 
he  was  passionately  devoted  to  books,  and  would  only  obtain 
his  reward  in  heaven/ 

The  libraries  of  Timbuctoo  were  sadly  reduced  by  the  pillage 
of  the  Foulbes  and  Toucouleurs.  At  the  present  time  the  mara- 
buts  and  kadis  are  best  provided,  but  every  wealthy  inhabitant 
prides  himself  upon  the  possession  of  a  few  books.  He  does  not 
often  read  them,  it  is  true,  but  he  likes  to  show  them,  which,  to 
him,  is  almost  as  good. 

In  spite  of  this  I  found  it  very  difficult  to  procure  any  books 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKORfi        289 

in  the  early  part  of  my  stay.  They  were  afraid  I  should  practise 
the  nefarious  customs  of  the  Toucouleurs  and  Foulbes.  After  I 
had  gained  some  credit  among  them,  a  few  solitary  pages  were 
lent  to  me,  and  when  they  saw  that  I  treated  them  tenderly  and 
faithfully  returned  them,  they  decided  to  trust  me  with  whole 
volumes.  I  never  succeeded  in  inducing  any  of  them  to  sell  me  a 
book,  however  much  I  offered  for  it,  and  had  to  content  myself 
with  copying  all  that  seemed  interesting  to  me.  One  man  told 
me  the  history  of  a  unique  volume  which  he  had  parted  with  to 
a  merchant  from  the  south,  and  had  regretted  ever  since.  He  had 
received  forty  gros  of  gold  for  it,  which,  at  the  rate  often  francs  a 
gros,  represents  a  respectable  sum  for  a  book,  even  in  France. 

From  the  masters  we  will  turn  to  the  pupils.  These  flocked  to 
the  city  from  all  sides,  from  the  desert,  Morocco,  and  all  parts  of 
the  Sudan.  Jenne  and  the  secondary  intellectual  circles,  such  as 
Tindirma,  Dia,  Sa,  Korienza,  etc.,  served  as  preparatory  schools 
for  Timbuctoo.  The  sons  of  the  Songhoi  kings  quitted  the  palaces 
of  Gao,  and  the  children  of  the  Touaregs  deserted  their  great  tents 
to  receive  an  education  at  the  University  of  Sankore.  The  Tarik 
mentions  this  interesting  fact:  'One  of  the  Askia,  Mohammed 
Bankouri,  collected  an  army  with  which  to  dispute  the  supreme 
power  with  a  king  proclaimed  at  Gao.  Pausing  at  Timbuctoo, 
and  having  conversed  with  the  Grand  Kadi,  he  requested  him  to 
write  a  letter  to  his  rival,  saying  that  he,  Bankouri,  renounced 
the  throne  that  he  might  follow  the  life  of  a  student  in  this  city 
of  books/  Side  by  side  with  princes  and  sons  of  chieftains 
came  poor  wretches,  eager  for  knowledge,  who  were  supported  by 
the  dignitaries  of  the  town,  and  by  those  merchants  who  liked  to 
play  the  role  of  Maecenas. 

The  student  or  Tdliba  arrives  armed  with  the  groundwork  of 


290 


TIMBUCTOO 


instruction  ;  some  small  marabut  of  his  native  country  having 
taught  him  to  read  and  write.  It  is  a  picture  one  constantly  sees 
in  the  Sudan.  In  the  shade  before  the  schoolmaster's  house,  a 
collection  of  children  are  gathered  together  in  the  coolest  corner. 
Arranged  in  circles  and  sitting  on  their  heels,  they  repeat  verses  of 
the  Koran  in  chorus,  following  the  inflections,  marking  the  pauses, 


A   SCHOOL    AT  JENNE 

and  imitating  the  tone  indicated  to  them.  They  learn  to  form 
the  Arabic  characters  by  copying  a  page  of  the  holy  book  on  the 
wooden  tablets  which  take  the  place  of  the  too  costly  paper.  From 
time  to  time  the  tablet  is  washed  and  set  in  the  sun  to  dry,  after 
which  it  is  again  ready  for  use. 

Heading  and  writing  being  accomplished,  the  master  delivers 
a  grammatical  and  exegetical  explanation  of  the  text.  He  either 
takes  the  words  one  by  one,  or  grouped  in  sentences,  and  dis- 
courses on  the  rules  of  syntax,  explains  the  meaning  of  the 


TIMBUCTOO 

passage,  and  adds  some  religious  or  historical  reflections.  When 
the  entire  Koran  has  been  gone  through,  the  parents,  who  have 
offered  weekly  presents  of  cowries  or  in  kind,  make  a  final  and 
more  extensive  present  to  the  professor,  and  invite  him  to  a  little 
jete  given  to  their  friends  and  acquaintances. 

The  young  man  is  now  prepared  for  the  reading  of  works  of 
greater  importance  of  another  kind.  I  say  'reading'  designedly, 
for  Arabian  instructions  consist  less  of  lessons  ex  professo  than 
of  the  explanation  of  books. 

Thus  prepared,  the  Taliba  sets  out  for  Timbuctoo,  and  there 
he  usually  studies  under  several  masters,  each  of  whom  makes  a 
speciality  of  elucidating  some  particular  work.  He  goes  from 
one  to  another,  according  to  their  merits  or  the  dictates  of  his 
own  fancy.  The  lessons  are  given  under  the  arcades  of  the  mosque 
of  Sankore,  or  in  the  court  or  gardens  of  the  teacher's  house. 

The  branches  of  instruction  were  many  and  various.  The 
theologians  commented  upon  and  analysed  the  great  sacred 
books,  and  taught  rhetoric,  logic,  eloquence,  and  diction  in  order 
to  prepare  the  student  to  spread  abroad  the  words  of  God  and 
maintain  controversies.  The  jurist  expounded  the  law  according 
to  the  Malakite  dogmas,  and  the  stylists  taught  the  art  of  writing 
4  in  ornamental  terms/  Others  professed  grammar,  prosody,  philo- 
logy, astronomy,  and  ethnography ;  and  others  again  were  '  very 
versed  in  the  traditions,  biographies,  annals,  and  histories  of  man- 
kind.1 Mathematics  do  not  appear  to  have  formed  a  special 
course ;  and  as  for  medicine,  the  grossest  empiricism  was  mingled 
with  the  hygienic  principles  of  the  therapeutic  Arab.  A  certain 
sheik  is  shown  curing  a  toothache  '  with  a  little  earth  from  his 
garden,'  and,  worse  than  that,  4  a  great  personage  having  been 
attacked*  by  leprosy,  doctors  came  from  all  parts  of  Africa  to  pre- 
scribe for  him.  One  of  them  said,  "  He  can  only  be  cured  by 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKOR^ 

eating  the  heart  of  a  young  man."  The  emir  instantly  ordered 
one  to  be  killed,  but  it  did  no  good,  and  the  great  personage  died 
of  his  disease.'' 


A   SCHOOL- 


These  studies  were  exceedingly  long.  '  We  were  three  years 
over  the  explanation  of  the  Teshil  of  the  Iman  Malek  before  we 
acquired  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  subtleties  of  the  Arabian 
language,'  says  a  writer  of  Timbuctoo.  Physical  education,  on 


294  TIMBUCTOO 

the  other  hand,  was  grossly  neglected.  Even  in  the  time  of  Sunni 
Ali  the  children  were  forbidden  to  play  or  practise  bodily  exercises. 
When  the  learned  men,  pursued  by  the  tyrant,  were  obliged  to 
quit  Timbuctoo,  '  they  did  not  know  how  to  mount  a  camel,  and 
fell  miserably  to  the  ground. ** 

The  students,  having  completed  their  education,  receive  a 
diploma  or  licence  to  teach.  They  are  now  marabuts  in  their 
turn,  and  all  the  liberal  careers  of  the  Sudan  are  open  to  them. 
They  can  enter  the  mosques  and  become  imans  or  preachers 
in  some  small  town,  or  they  can  aspire  to  the  position  of  kadi,  or 
assistant-kadi,  in  their  own  country.  Some  adopt  the  careers 
of  their  masters  and  found  fresh  families  of  sheiks. 

Rich  merchants  often  take  one  of  these  young  men  into  their 
household,  where  he  plays  a  part  analogous  to  that  formerly 
occupied  by  the  chaplain  in  European  families.  He  occupies 
himself  with  the  education  of  the  children,  reads  aloud  to  the 
head  of  the  family,  and  writes  his  letters.  He  also  gives  his 
opinion  on  matters  of  hygiene  and  morality,  superintends  the 
merchant's  charities,  and  tells  him  amusing  stories.  Other  Talibas 
gain  a  livelihood  by  giving  lessons  in  the  Arabian  language  and 
writing  to  the  negro  strangers  passing  through  Timbuctoo.  A 
great  number  fill  the  office  of  public  scribe,  and  undertake  the 
correspondence  of  different  merchants ;  they  also  copy  books,  for 
which  they  are  paid  from  fifteen  to  one  hundred  francs,  according 
to  the  importance  of  the  work. 

Thieves  and  hypocrites  may  also  be  counted  among  their 
numbers.  These  exploit  the  credulous  and  cultivate  superstition 
among  the  people,  reducing  Islamism  to  the  level  of  the  fetich- 
worship  and  the  practice  of  magic,  brought  from  Egypt  by  the 
ancestors  of  the  Songhois.  They  will  prepare  noxious  potions  for 
a  consideration,  and  hold  somnambulistic  consultations.  They  fore- 


THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    SANKORE        295 

tell  the  failure  or  success  of  a  journey  or  enterprise,  manufacture 
talismans,  and  profess  to  cast  spells.  The  traffic  of  talismans  or 
grls-gris  is  particularly  lucrative,  their  principal  clients  being 
Touaregs  and  negroes.  These  grls-gris  consist  of  prayers  or 
invocations,  written  on  a  morsel  of  stuff  and  sewn  up  in  a  leathern 
bag.  They  are  suspended  from  the  walls  of  houses  to  keep  away 
demons  and  djinns,  and  to  serve  as  a  protection  against  enemies. 
Certain  rigmaroles  read  on  a  Monday  or  a  Friday  will  protect 
travellers  on  their  journeys.  I  have  even  discovered  a  '  recipe 
for  driving  away  locusts."  Here  it  is  :  6  Any  one  desiring  this, 
should  write  upon  four  sheets  of  paper  the  prayer  I  have  com- 
posed, and  place  one  in  each  corner  of  his  field.  He  must  then 
take  a  yellow  and  a  red  locust  and  pronounce  the  first  verse  of 
my  prayer  seven  times,  after  which  he  must  say,  "  O  Locust, 
if  thou  and  thy  companions  do  not  quit  this  field,  thou  shalt  be 
charged  with  the  abominable  sin  of  him  who  hath  relations  with 
mother  and  daughter." ' 

A  learned  man  of  great  celebrity,  El  Moucheili,  wrote  a  book 
on  these  charlatans,  entitled,  'Advice  to  honest  people  against 
allowing  themselves  to  be  duped  by  pretended  marabuts.' 


CHAPTER    XIV 

POLITICS   AND    LITERATURE 

NOT  content  with  being  priests,  magistrates,  and  scholars,  the 
marabuts  further  extended  their  influence  over  the  domains  of 
politics  and  literature. 

We  have  shown  great  and  small  hastening  to  the  dwellings 
of  these  learned  men  to  seek  counsel  and  consolation  from  their 
holiness  and  wisdom,  and  in  this  manner  the  marabuts  accustomed 
themselves  to  giving  advice  without  always  waiting  to  be  asked 
for  it.  These  pious  and  wise  men  '  remonstrated,  sometimes 
severely,  with  people  of  all  classes,  even  princes.'  Kadi  El  Akib, 
for  example,  '  possessed  a  mixture  of  firmness  and  independence 
which  raised  him  above  all  prejudices;  he  expressed  his  opinion 
to  the  sultan  with  the  same  frankness  he  employed  to  his  humblest 
subject.  When  he  observed  anything  in  his  sovereign's  conduct 
that  was  reproved  by  the  Law  of  the  Prophet"  (nota  bene,  it  is 
always  possible  to  find  a  text  in  the  Law  of  the  Prophet  which 
will  command  or  forbid  anything,  no  matter  what),  '  he  would 
resign  his  post  and  retire  to  his  house/  Thus  the  marabuts 
glided  into  the  dangerous  path  of  politics. 

Their  intrusion  into  the  political  world  soon  led  to  their  being 
regarded  with  grave  suspicion,  and  finally  caused  their  fall.  As 
we  have  seen,  the  soldierly  fist  of  Sunni  Ali  weighed  heavily  upon 
those  who  opposed  him. 

297 


J 


298  TIMBUCTOO 

The  marabuts  regained  their  lost  ground,  however,  under  the 
Askias.  The  founder  of  the  dynasty,  whether  from  conviction  or 
expediency,  showed  himself  their  ardent  and  untiring  friend, 
and  we  have  seen  them  lending  devoted  support  to  the  usurper 
in  return,  and  legitimising  with  sacred  texts  his  assumption  of  the 
throne.  They  were  kept  constantly  about  his  person,  and  he 
consulted  them  in  everything,  even  asking  their  advice  in  matters 
of  war.  He  appealed  to  them  in  all  legal  affairs,  and  treated  them, 
in  short,  as  his  ministers.  A  pamphlet  of  the  period,  found  in  a 
library  at  Timbuctoo,  describes  the  part  played  by  the  marabuts. 
Its  author  is  not  a  Sudanese,  but  is  one  of  those  Arabian  doctors 
who  travelled  about  the  Sudan  in  the  reign  of  the  famous  monarch, 
and  whose  description  is  unfortunately  still  wanting.  The  very 
original  character  of  El  Moucheili  may  serve  to  fill  the  blank, 
perhaps. 

Born  in  Tlemcen  in  Algeria,  '  he  combined  a  remarkable  intel- 
ligence," says  his  biographer,  '  with  a  passion  for  study,  and  was 
distinguished  as  much  by  his  piety  as  his  erudition."  Of  a  bold 
and  enterprising  disposition,  and  filled  with  zeal  for  the  Koran,  he 
devoted  all  his  knowledge  and  energies  to  the  cause  of  fanaticism. 
Having  gained  considerable  influence  with  the  Assembly  of  Notables 
during  his  sojourn  in  the  confederation  of  Tuat,  he  urged  them  to 
a  persecution  of  the  Jews.  Not  content  with  degrading  and 
depriving  these  people  of  their  privileges,  he  incited  the  populace 
to  massacre  them  and  destroy  their  synagogues.  The  Grand  Kadi 
of  the  Republic  highly  disapproved  of  this  violence,  and  the 
ulemas  of  Fez,  Tunis,  and  Tlemcen  were  consulted  on  the  question. 
Two  of  them  defended  El  Moucheili,  and  one  of  them  drew  up  a 
long  memorial  on  the  legitimacy  of  intolerance,  addressing  the 
hero  of  Tuat  in  the  following  words  :  '  All  honour  to  our  brother 
the  zealous  doctor,  who  alone  had  courage  in  these  times  of  cor- 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  299 

ruption  to  proclaim  his  faith  in  open  day,  to  resist  abuses,  and  to 
arouse  lukewarm  souls  to  the  true  religion.  It  is  a  glory  to 
him  to  have  opposed  with  such  energy  the  enterprises  of  the 
Jews  (whom  may  God  crush  with  His  scorn  !).  He  only  has  been 
found  sufficiently  faithful  to  awaken  the  people  whom  worldly 
interest  has  made  deaf  to  the  voice  of  the  Prophet/  On  the 
reception  of  this  letter  El  Mouche'ili  announced  the  triumph  of 
his  opinions  to  his  partisans  and  commanded  the  destruction  of 
the  synagogue.  He  put  a  price  upon  the  Jews,  and  paid  seven 
mitkals  (ninety  francs)  a  head  for  them  out  of  his  own  purse. 
The  massacre  which  followed  obliged  him  to  quit  the  country 
and  seek  refuge  in  the  heart  of  the  Sudan,  where  he  found  shelter 
and  a  position  in  the  court  of  Askia  the  Great. 

The  Songhoi  king  asked  him  seven  questions  on  the  subject  of 
the  reforms  then  occupying  his  mind,  viz.  the  regulation  of  com- 
mercial transactions,  the  suppression  of  fraud,  the  establishment 
of  the  tax  on  land,  the  tithe  upon  newly  conquered  countries,  the 
question  of  inheritance,  and  the  measures  to  be  taken  to  ensure 
morality  and  good  manners  among  the  Sudanese. 

The  pamphlet  in  my  possession  contains  these  questions  and 
the  answers  made  to  them  by  the  Arabian  sheik,  which  are  treated 
as  carrying  all  the  force  of  law.  El  Mouche'ili  counsels,  among 
other  things,  the  creation  of  inspectors  of  markets  and  manners, 
and  the  verification  of  weights  and  measures.  Besides  these 
excellent  reforms,  he  suggested  the  adoption  of  measures  which 
are  in  every  way  regrettable,  bearing  as  they  do  the  imprint  of 
the  severity  and  intolerance  of  which  he  had  given  ample  evidence 
in  his  campaign  against  the  Jews  of  Tuat.  He  advocated  the  most 
stringent  regulations,  generally  accompanied  by  a  death  penalty, 
and  always  based  upon  the  most  judicial  and  religious  arguments. 

This   excessive    zeal    and    the    great    influence    El    Mouche'ili 


300 


TIMBUCTOO 


exercised  over  the  Sudan  (he  is  still  an  authority  there)  leads 
us  to  a  subject  upon  which  hitherto  we  have  not  had  occasion  to 
touch,  but  which,  nevertheless,  is  of  considerable  importance,  viz. 
the  psychology  of  the  Mussulman  negro. 

The  character  of  the  Sudanese  in  general,  and  the  Songhoi  in 
particular,  is  essentially  based  upon  a  foundation  of  goodness  and 
docility,  and  they  lack  the  /  elements  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  savage  sectarian  Jji^  so  common  to  the  north  of 
Africa  and  Asia.  The  MvL  Sudanese  generally  adopted 

~~^  *••**'' 


THE   GRAND    MOSQUE    OF   TIMBUCTOO 


the  religion  of  Mahomet  out  of  pure  snobbishness,  because  their 
conquerors  professed  it,  and  it  reflected  some  prestige  upon  them 
and  gave  them  a  claim  to  consideration.  Once  under  European 
rule,  therefore,  there  would  be  no  impediment  to  their  conversion 
to  Christianity.  Left  to  themselves,  they  form  the  type  of  the 
tolerant  Mussulman.  Five  centuries  after  the  introduction  of 
Islamism  into  the  Sudan  we  still  find  the  fetichist's  temple  standing 
side  by  side  with  the  mosque,  even  in  great  centres  like  Jenne, 
where  the  idolatrous  altars  were  not  destroyed  until  1475.  Among 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  301 

the  numerous  biographies  of  the  saints  I  have  never  seen  the 
intolerance  of  these  pious  individuals  boasted  of  nor  even  men- 
tioned. In  a  general  way,  the  tepid  fervour  of  the  populace  is 
tainted  by  the  naive  scepticism  displayed  by  Sunni  AH  in  the 
very  typical  incidents  I  have  already  described.  They  seldom 
observe  the  fast  of  Ramadan  in  all  its  rigour,  and  I  have  mentioned 
the  consumption  of  intoxicating  liquids  once  or  twice  before. 
Circumcision  and  the  daily  prayers  constitute,  in  fact,  their 
principal  observances  of  the  Mohammedan  religion. 

Contemporary  history  of  the  Sudan  has,  however,  revealed 
frequent  fanatical  explosions  and  numerous  holy  wars.  The 
curious  biography  of  El  Moucheili  has  disclosed  one  of  the  causes 
of  these  disturbances,  namely,  the  influence  of  the  Arabian  Mus- 
sulman, which  at  the  present  moment  principally  makes  itself  felt 
by  the  propaganda  of  the  sect  of  the  Snoussi.  Another  fruitful 
cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  pilgrimages  to  Mecca.  It  is,  there- 
fore, through  direct,  or  indirect,  contact  with  the  foreign  Mus- 
sulman of  the  white  races  that  the  Sudanese  is  transformed  into 
a  sectarian,  and  it  is  from  this  contact  that  we  must  preserve 
him  in  order  to  maintain  peace  in  the  Nigerian  countries. 

Finally,  and  most  characteristically,  it  is  not  the  pure-bred  negro 
among  the  populations  of  the  Sudan  who  allows  himself  to  be  led 
into  holy  wars,  but  it  is  those  people  in  whose  veins  the  blood  of 
the  white  races  flows,  the  Foulbes  of  Berber  origin,  and  the  Tou- 
couleurs,  who  are  a  mixture  of  the  Foulbe  and  the  negro  of  Mali. 

Among  the  Sudanese  marabuts  noted  as  the  ministers  of  Askia 
the  Great,  Mohaman  Koti,  or  Koutou,  deserves  special  notice. 
With  him  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  of  the  literary  produc- 
tions of  the  Sudan,  for  among  the  Nigerian  writers  worthy  of 
attention  he  is  the  first  in  date. 


302  TIMBUCTOO 

According  to  some  he  was  a,  Malinka,  according  to  others  a 
Songhoi  born  at  Karamiou.  His  education,  begun  at  Tindirma, 
was  completed  at  Timbuctoo,  and  he  became  the  most  esteemed 
and  even  tyrannical  counsellor  of  the  great  king.  His  authority 
originated  in  the  following  manner.  Askia  one  day  distributed 
some  dried  dates  among  his  retinue,  and  Koti,  newly  arrived  at 
the  court,  was  somehow  overlooked.  Shortly  afterwards  the 
learned  doctor  assembled  his  pupils  and  dispensed  fresh  dates 
among  them.  This  miracle — for  the  Sudan  does  not  produce 
dates — having  reached  the  ears  of  the  king,  he  immediately  dis- 
cerned that  Koti  was  marked  with  the  divine  seal.  From  that 
moment  Askia  gave  him  all  his  confidence,  and  bestowed  so  much 
wealth  upon  him  that  he  was  free  to  devote  himself  entirely  to 
literature. 

The  Sudanese  doctors  were  enabled  to  add  the  works  of  their 
own  authors  to  the  books  of  Bagdad,  Cairo,  and  Grenada,  which 
formed  the  foundations  of  their  libraries.  These  writings  were 
almost  invariably  of  a  serious  kind,  scholastic  and  judicial  treatises, 
and  the  greater  part  of  their  productions  are  entirely  without 
interest  to  us.  A  fraction  of  it,  on  the  other  hand,  is  of  the 
highest  importance,  and  contains  those  historical  works  which  shed 
so  much  light  upon  the  obscure  past  of  these  vast  regions. 

Under  the  title  of  the  Fatassi,  Koti  edited  a  history  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Ganata,  Songhoi,  and  Timbuctoo,  from  their  origins 
to  the  year  1554  (950  of  the  Hegira).  In  spite  of  the  most  per- 
sistent research,  I  have  not  been  able  to  procure  more  than 
fragments  of  this  important  work.  Every  one  knows  all  about  it, 
but  no  one  possesses  it;  it  is  the  phantom  book  of  the  Sudan. 

Koti  was  born  in  1460,  and  as  he  survived  Askia  the  Great 
by  fourteen  years-,  and  was  connected  with  all  the  public  affairs, 
his  account  of  this  brilliant  epoch  of  the  Sudan  would  be  of 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  303 

inestimable  value.  The  fragments  we  have  discovered  amply  prove 
this,  and  their  extreme  interest  greatly  augments  our  regrets. 
4  Perhaps  you  will  find  a  complete  copy  at  Dia  or  Korienza,1  they 
told  me.  But  all  I  could  discover  was  one  of  the  descendants  of 
the  historian,  named  Ahmadou  Sansarif,  who  exercised  the  func- 
tions of  kadi  at  Timbuctoo.  He  was  very  well  informed,  and 
revised  the  manuscripts  which  had  been  copied  for  me,  and  these 
are  the  facts  he  imparted  concerning  the  great  work  of  his 
progenitor  : — 

4  The  Fatassi  has  never  been  so  well  known  as  the  other  histories 
of  the  Sudan  because  it  dealt  with  the  concerns  of  many  peoples 
and  many  men.  Families,  since  grown  rich  and  powerful,  and  the 
chiefs  of  various  countries,  were  shown  with  very  humble  origins, 
sometimes  being  the  offspring  of  slaves.  The  book  caused  great 
annoyance  to  many  people  on  this  account,  and  those  interested 
bought  all  the  copies  they  could  procure  and  destroyed  them. 
The  original  manuscript,  however,  had  been  transmitted  to  our 
family.  One  of  my  great-aunts,  living  in  Tindirmah,  had  inherited 
it,  and  guarded  it  jealously.  To  avoid  unpleasantness,  and  at  the 
same  time  preserve  the  book  from  destruction,  she  had  it  placed 
in  a  wooden  box  and  buried  under  a  hillock  close  to  her  house. 
My  aunt  was  a  widow,  and  among  other  charms  she  possessed  the 
gift  of  conversation.  Her  house  was  the  centre  of  frequent  gather- 
ings, and  when  she  was  asked,  "What  is  this  mound  in  your  garden?" 
she  always  replied,  44  It  is  Ahmadou  Koti,  my  venerable  ancestor, 
who  is  buried  there.*"  Her  friends  never  failed  to  say  a  short 
prayer  over  the  mound,  for  Koti  had  left  a  great  reputation  for 
piety  and  wisdom  behind  him.  A  Foulbe  succeeded  in  becoming 
so  intimate  with  my  aunt  that  she  imparted  her  secret  to  him. 
He  immediately  quitted  Tindirma  and  went  to  his  king,  Cheikou 
Ahmadou,  to  reveal  to  him  the  existence  of  a  complete  copy  of 


304  TIMBUCTOO 

the  Fatassi.  Shortly  afterwards  the  king  sent  a  troop  of  soldiers 
to  dig  up  the  mound  and  discover  its  precious  treasure  ;  but  as 
they  were  returning  to  Hamadallai  the  bearer  of  the  priceless 
volume  capsized  his  canoe,  and  the  book  was  lost  to  the  world 
for  ever.1 

We  have  seen  that,  in  order  to  legitimise  his  holy  war  and  his 
conquests,  Cheikou  Ahmadou  gave  himself  out  to  be  the  twelfth 
Khalif,  and  rested  the  pretension  upon  an  obvious  fabrication  pro- 
fessing to  be  taken  from  the  Fatassi.  Is  it  not  likely  that  the 
Foulbes  organised  the  persecution  of  the  book  with  the  intention 
of  destroying  the  proofs  of  their  king's  trickery  ? 

The  political  influence  of  the  marabuts  steadily  increased  under 
the  successors  of  Askia  the  Great,  and  we  have  shown  them 
remonstrating  with  the  unnatural  sons  of  the  unhappy  old  man. 
The  turn  taken  by  their  authority  is  interesting  and  unexpected, 
for  it  represents  what  we  to-day  call  c  public  opinion,*1  and  we  are 
about  to  see  the  Songhoi  kings  showing  themselves  singularly 
susceptible  to  its  influence. 

'  The  king,  Askia  Moussa,"  relates  the  Tarik^  '  having  been 
defeated  in  the  countries  of  Lake  Chad  and  obliged  to  take  to 
flight  with  his  army,  said  to  his  generalissimo,  "  In  spite  of  all  the 
anguish  of  defeat,  it  is  less  painful  to  me  to  endure  than  is  the 
thought  of  what  will  pass  in  Timbuctoo  when  the  news  of  my 
disaster  reaches  there.  The  agitators  will  gather  together  behind 
the  mosque  of  Sankore  and  say,  Young  men,  have  you  heard 
what  is  passing  in  Kanta  ?  The  king  has  been  forced  to  fly  lest 
he  and  his  army  should  perish.  They  whom  he  has  fought  would 
annihilate  him  ! — I  can  hear  them  as  plainly  as  though  I  were 
there."1 

Other   anecdotes    show    us    the    marabuts   treating    the   royal 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE 


305 


authority  with  a  freedom  which  savours  of  insolence.  The 
sovereigns,  on  the  other  hand,  display  a  great  lack  of  spirit,  and  by 
the  sixteenth  century  the  pious  scholars  have  become  a  politically 
dangerous  and  turbulent  element. 

It  was  this  which  brought  upon  them  the  Moorish  exile ;  their 


BEHIND  THE   MOSQUE  OF  SANKORE 

conquerors,  although  Mussulmans,  soon  saw  that  the  mosque  con- 
stituted their  sole  danger.  It  was  undoubtedly  at  the  instigation 
of  the  marabuts  that  Timbuctoo  revolted  against  the  foreign 
garrison,  and  the  pasha  Mahmoud  employed  a  soldier's  method 
(that  is  to  say,  a  radical  one)  of  quelling  these  priests.  He  arrested 
a  great  number  of  them,  with  their  families,  and  despoiled  them  or 
their  wealth,  which  had  become  considerable.  A  certain  propor- 

z 


306  TIMBUCTOO 

tion  were  massacred,  and  the  rest,  after  five  months1  imprisonment, 
were  exiled  to  Morocco  (1594). 

Their  misfortunes  surpassed  those  endured  by  their  ancestors 
under  Sunni  Ali,  for  they  were  dragged  in  chains  through  the 
desert  and  incarcerated  at  Marrakesh.  Though  they  had  abused 
their  power  in  the  days  of  prosperity,  they  did  not  succumb  to 
the  blows  of  adversity.  So  far  from  humiliating  themselves  before 
their  merciless  conquerors,  the  firm  and  haughty  demeanour  they 
maintained  excites  our  admiration.  One  of  them,  finding  death  to 
be  near,  charged  his  companions  to  deliver  a  sealed  letter  to  the 
sultan,  which  contained  these  words :  '  Thou  art  the  oppressor  and 
I  am  the  oppressed,  but  oppressor  and  oppressed  alike  shall  stand 
before  the  Eternal  Judge.1 

However  regrettable  this  exile  may  be  from  its  consequences' 
to  the  Sudan,  it  does  not  lack  great  historical  interest.  It  is  the 
touchstone  which  enables  us  to  test  the  eulogies  concerning 
Sudanese  science  and  learning  contained  in  the  native  documents, 
for  we  now  see  the  scholars  of  Sankore  confronted  by  the  highest 
developments  of  Arabian  civilisation.  How  will  they  stand  the 
ordeal  ?  The  test  proves  entirely  to  their  advantage. 

Among  the  exiles  was  a  learned  doctor,  Ahmed  Baba  by  name, 
born  in  1556  at  Arawan,  of  Senhadjan1  Berber  parentage.  In 
spite  of  his  youth,  he  enjoyed  a  considerable  reputation  in  Tim- 
buctoo  at  the  time  of  the  Moorish  conquest,  and  his  brethren 
gave  him  the  title  of  '  The  Unique  Pearl  of  his  Time."  His  renown 
increased  in  Morocco  and  became  universal,  spreading  from  Marra- 
kesh to  Bougie,  Tunis,  and  even  to  Tripoli.  The  Arabs  of  the 
north  called  this  negro  <  very  learned  and  very  magnanimous,'  and 
his  gaolers  found  him  '  a  fount  of  erudition.1  At  the  request  of 

1  This  tribe  of  Senhadja  spread  very  freely  over  the  south-west  of  Africa,  and  it  is 
from  them  that  Senegal  takes  its  name. 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  307 

the  Moorish  scholars  the  doors  of  his  prison  were  opened  a  year 
after  his  arrival  (1596).  All  the  believers  were  greatly  pleased 
with  his  release,  and  he  was  conducted  in  triumph  from  his  prison 
to  the  principal  mosque  of  Marrakesh.  A  great  many  of  the 
learned  men  urged  him  to  open  a  course  of  instruction.  His 
first  thought  was  to  refuse,  but  overcome  by  their  persistence  he 
accepted  a  post  in  the  Mosque  of  the  Kerifs  and  taught  rhetoric, 
law,  and  theology.  An  extraordinary  number  of  pupils  attended 
his  lectures,  and  questions  of  the  gravest  importance  were  sub- 
mitted to  him  by  the  magistracy,  his  decision  always  being  treated 
as  final.  With  a  modesty  worthy  of  his  learning,  he  said  concern- 
ing these  decisions  :  '  I  carefully  examined  from  every  point  of 
view  the  questions  asked  me,  and  having  little  confidence  in  my 
own  judgment  I  entreated  the  assistance  of  God,  and  the  Lord 
graciously  enlightened  me.1 

The  ancient  histories  of  Morocco  relate  many  other  interesting 
details,  and  the  author  of  the  Bedzl  el  Mouasaha  reports  the  follow- 
ing utterance  of  Ahmed  Baba :  6  Of  all  my  friends  I  had  the  fewest 
books,  and  yet  when  your  soldiers  despoiled  me  they  took  1600 
volumes. '  The  Nozhel  el  Hadj  gives  the  following  instance  of  the 
courage  and  pride  of  the  negro  sheik :  '  After  he  was  set  at 
liberty  Ahmed  Baba  presented  himself  at  the  palace  of  El  Man- 
sour,  and  the  sultan  gave  audience  to  him  from  behind  a  curtain. 
"  God  has  declared  in  the  Koran,"  said  the  sheik,  "  that  no  human 
being  can  communicate  with  Him  hidden  behind  a  veil.  If  it  is 
your  wish  to  speak  to  me,  come  forth  from  behind  that  curtain.'* 
When  El  Mansour  raised  the  curtain  and  approached  him,  Ahmed 
Baba  continued,  "  What  need  had  you  to  sack  my  house,  steal  my 
books,  and  put  me  into  chains  to  bring  me  to  Morocco?  By 
means  of  those  chains  I  fell  from  my  camel  and  broke  my  leg." 
"  We  wished  to  establish  unity  in  the  Mussulman  world,"  replied 


308  TIMBUCTOO 

the  sultan,  "  and  since  you  were  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
representatives  of  Islam  in  your  country,  we  expected  your  sub- 
mission to  be  followed  by  that  of  your  fellow-citizens."  "  If  that 
is  so,  why  did  you  not  seek  to  establish  this  unity  amongst  the 
Turks  of  Tlemcen  and  other  places  nearer  to  you  ? "  "  Because 
the  Prophet  says,  Leave  the  Turks  in  peace  so  long  as  they  do  not 
interfere  with  thee."  "  That  was  true  at  one  time,"  responded 
Ahmed  Baba,  "but  since  then  Iba  Abbas  has  said,  Leave  not 
the  Turks  in  peace  even  though  they  should  not  interfere  with 
thee."  El  Mansour,  being  unable  to  reply  to  this,  put  an  end 
to  the  audience/ 

Although  apparently  free,  Ahmed  Baba  was  detained  in 
Morocco  for  twelve  years;  the  sultan  had  only  released  him  on 
that  condition,  fearing  the  effect  of  his  influence  on  his  fellow- 
citizens.  It  was  not  until  after  the  death  of  El  Mansour  that 
permission  was  obtained  from  his  son  for  the  learned  man  to  return 
to  the  Sudan.  Ahmed  Baba  then  set  out  for  the  country  to 
which  he  had  so  ardently  desired  to  return,  and  of  which  he 
never  spoke  without  tears  in  his  eyes.  The  following  verses  were 
written  by  him  in  his  exile : — 

4O  thou  who  goest  to  Gao,turn  aside  from  thy  path  to  breathe 
my  name  in  Timbuctoo.  Bear  thither  the  greeting  of  an  exile 
who  sighs  for  the  soil  on  which  his  friends  and  family  reside. 
Console  my  near  and  dear  ones  for  the  deaths  of  their  lords,  who 
have  been  entombed." 

The  principal  marabuts  of  Marrakesh  formed  him  a  guard  of 
honour  at  his  departure,  and,  at  the  moment  of  farewell,  one  of 
them  seized  Ahmed  Baba  by  the  hand  and  saluted  him  with  the 
following  sura  from  the  holy  book  :  '  Certainly  he  who  has  made 
the  Koran  for  thee  shall  lead  thee  back  to  thy  point  of  departure ' 
— a  customary  address  to  a  traveller  in  wishing  him  a  safe  return. 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  309 

On  hearing  these  words,  the  sheik  abruptly  withdrew  his  hand, 
exclaiming,  '  May  God  never  bring  me  back  to  this  meeting,  nor 
make  me  return  to  this  country  ! ' 

He  reach  Timbuctoo  in  safety,  and  died  in  16&7.1  A  man 
of  great  learning  and  a  prolific  writer,  the  names  of  twenty  of  his 
books  have  been  handed  down  to  us.  Except  for  an  astronomical 
treatise,  written  in  verse,  and  some  commentaries  on  the  holy  texts, 
his  books  are  chiefly  elucidations  of  the  law  and  the  sciences  he  pro- 
fessed, and  prove  that  he  was  above  everything  a  jurist.  Two  of 
his  works  alone  possess  general  interest ;  they  have  been  preserved, 
happily,  and  I  was  enabled  to  bring  copies  of  them  away  with  me. 
One  is  entitled  the  Miraz.  and  is  a  little  book  upon  the  different 
negraic  peoples,  written  by  Ahmed  Baba  in  exile,  with  a  view  to 
making  the  Sudanese  populations  known  to  the  Moors.  The 
other  is  El  Ibtihadj,  a  large  biographical  dictionary  of  the  Mussul- 
man doctors  of  the  Malekite  sect ;  in  it  Ahmed  Baba  carried  on 
the  famous  work  of  Ibn  Ferhoun,  and  made  it  a  continuation  of 
the  latter's  D'ibadje.  The  learned  biographer  added  to  it  the  lives 
of  all  the  scholars  whom  Ibn  Ferhoun  had  not  mentioned.  Ahmed 
Baba  completed  his  book  in  1596,  and  it  had  such  a  great  success 
in  both  northern  and  negraic  Africa  that  the  author  was  obliged 
to  publish  a  popular  edition  containing  the  principal  biographies 
only.2 

It  is  partly  owing  to  the  Ibtihadj  that  it  has  been  possible  to 
reconstruct  the  intellectual  past  of  Timbuctoo,  and  for  this  reason 
the  name  of  Ahmed  Baba  deserves  to  be  held  in  pious  memory  by 
our  savants,  as  it  is  by  those  of  the  Arabian  countries  of  Northern 

1  He  was  buried  beside  his  father,  Sidi  Ahmed,  whose  tomb  is  still  to  be  seen  to 
the  north  of  Timbuctoo. 

2  A  copy  of  this  book  is  to  be  found  among  the  manuscripts  of  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,  Fonds  Orscela,  No.  4628.     It  was  found  in  Algeria  by  M.  Cherbonneau, 
who  has  published  some  very  interesting  extracts. 


310  TIMBUCTOO 

Africa.  To  this  day  his  name  represents  to  the  latter  every  effort 
made  by  the  Sudan  to  attain  the  intellectual  level  of  the  Mussul- 
man world;  so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  any  Sudanese  work  of 
unknown  parentage  is  attributed  to  him. 

The  family  of  Ahmed  Baba  is  not  yet  extinct,  and  I  found 
some  of  his  descendants  living  near  the  mosque  of  Sankore  in  a 
house  of  considerable  size,  which  had  been,  I  was  told,  the  home  of 
their  ancestor.  One  of  his  great-great-grandchildren,  Ahmadou 
Baba  Boubakar,  is  kadi,  and  enjoys  a  considerable  reputation  for 
learning;  the  other,  Oumaro  Baba,  lives  by  making  copies  of 
books,  which  he  executes  in  a  very  beautiful  handwriting.  The 
family  religiously  preserve  a  chair  which  had  belonged  to  their 
glorious  progenitor,  to  whom  it  had  been  presented  by  his 
liberator,  the  Sultan  El  Zidan.  A  curious  family  tradition  is  con- 
nected with  this  venerated  piece  of  furniture.  On  the  occasion 
of  the  marriage  of  a  member  of  the  family,  the  bridegroom  is 
permitted  to  seat  himself  in  this  chair  on  the  day  of  his  nuptials. 
It  is  hoped,  they  told  me,  that  some  of  the  great  qualities  of 
the  illustrious  sheik  will  fall  upon  the  husband  and  his  de- 
scendants. 

That  sixteenth  century,  which  we  saw  end  so  disastrously  for 
the  marabuts,  formed  the  apogee  of  Timbuctoo's  scientific  and 
literary  grandeur.  The  wholesale  arrest  and  exportation  of  her 
scholars  proved  a  fatal  blow  to  the  university  of  Sankore.  The 
decline  of  learning,  as  of  everything  else,  set  in  with  the  Moorish 
occupation,  and  yet  the  greatest  work  of  all  the  literature  of  the 
Sudan  was  produced  in  the  first  days  of  its  twilight,  namely, 
that  Tarik  e  Soudan  (the  History  of  the  Sudan)  which  we  have 
so  often  had  occasion  to  mention. 

The  Orientalists  have  long  been  on  the  watch  for  this  precious 
book,  whose  existence  had  been  signalled  to  them  from  Tripoli, 


312  TIMBUCTOO 

Algeria,  and  Morocco,  and  which  .had  been  unanimously  attributed 
to  Ahmed  Baba. 

The  explorer  Barth,  who  was  the  first  to  reveal  some  of  its 
fragments,  confirmed  tnis  error.  How  could  a  man  so  well  in- 
formed on  Arabian  subjects  be  so  completely  deceived  ?  The  very 
extracts  collected  by  him  refute  this  paternity,  for  they  cite  Ahmed 
Baba  as  an  authority.  But  the  learned  German  is  not  to  be 
embarrassed  by  such  a  trifle.  '  It  is  the  custom  of  these  Arabs,1 
he  observes,  '  to  quote  themselves.1 

If  he  had  read  the  entire  book  with  more  attention,  he  would 
have  seen  that  the  date — year,  month,  and  day — of  Ahmed  Baba's 
death  is  mentioned  by  the  author,  and  that  elsewhere  he  gives  a 
very  circumstantial  account  of  himself  and  his  belongings.  His 
name  is  Abderrahman  (ben  Abdallah,  ben  Amran,  ben  Amar)  Sadi 
el  Timbucti,  and  he  was  born  at  Timbuctoo  (the  '  object  of 
his  affections "),  of  one  of  those  families  in  which  science  and  piety 
are  transmitted  as  a  patrimony.  In  mentioning  the  death  of  an 
illustrious  professor,  he  observes  that  he,  Abderrahman,  was  his 
pupil ;  and  from  this  we  may. gather  that  his  youth  was  spent  in 
study.  He  arrived  at  the  age  of  manhood  somewhere  between 
1625  and  1635,  at  a  time  when  the  power  of  the  pashas  of 
Timbuctoo  was  on  the  wane.  The  Moors  had  intermarried  with 
the  native  populations,  and,  instead  of  persecuting  the  sheiks  as 
formerly,  they  protected  them,  and  made  use  of  them  when  they 
were  in  need  of  intelligent  and  devoted  men.  We  can  see  with 
what  consideration  a  learned  man  like  Abderrahman  Sadi  was 
treated  ;  and  the  account  of  his  journey  to  Massina  and  the  regions 
of  the  Upper  Niger  shows  the  high  reputation  he  enjoyed,  not  only 
in  Timbuctoo,  but  in  all  the  countries  which  shared  the  intellectual 
life  of  that  city.  Wherever  he  went  he  was  received  with  joy, 
covered  with  marks  of  respect,  and  overwhelmed  with  presents. 


iSJTY 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  313 


In  1631  he  was  nominated  iman  of  the  mosque  of  Jenne. 
Deprived  later  of  the  honour  by  the  kadi  of  the  town,  '  a  man 
who  rejoiced  in  exactions  and  injustice,**  he  returned  to  Timbuctoo, 
where  society  consoled  him  for  his  mortification  by  the  most  heart- 
felt marks  of  sympathy.  He  relates  that  when  he  visited  the 
kadi  of  this  city,  '  he  arose  from  his  seat  as  soon  as  he  saw  me, 
and,  taking  me  by  the  hand,  he  seated  me  upon  the  chair  he  had 
just  vacated.1 

Abderrahman  Sadi  lived  sometimes  at  Timbuctoo  and  some- 
times at  Jenne,  being  employed  on  negotiations  and  missions  by 
the  pashas,  and  engaged  as  secretary  to  one  of  their  number.  He 
also  occupied  his  time  in  giving  lectures  and  holding  conferences, 
and,  above  all,  he  undertook  the  great  historical  work  which 
embraced  all  the  countries  of  the  Niger.  Thanks  to  his  voyages, 
his  official  functions,  and  his  personal  position,  he  had  access  to 
all  existing  documents,  so  many  of  which  have  disappeared  in  the 
toil  and  tumults  of  centuries.  This  work,  to  which  he  consecrated 
the  last  years  of  his  life,  is  inestimably  precious. 

The  Tarik  e  Soudan  is  conceived  upon  a  perfectly  clear  and 
logical  plan,  according  to  the  most  correct  rules  of  literary  composi- 
tion. Nothing  is  lacking,  not  even  a  preface,  which  I  will  quote 
because  it  shows,  among  other  things,  the  very  clear,  perhaps  exag- 
gerated, estimate  the  author  had  of  the  decadence  of  the  empire  : 

'  Praise  be  to  God  whom  the  weight  of  a  pearl  upon  the  earth 
does  not  escape.  May  prayer  and  salvation  be  with  the  Master 
of  the  first  and  last,  our  Lord  Mohammed.  We  know  that  our 
ancestors  took  pleasure  in  mentioning  the  companions  of  the 
Prophet  and  the  saints,  the  sheiks  and  eminent  kings  of  their 
country,  with  their  lives,  their  edifices,  and  the  great  events  of  their 
reigns.  They  have  told  us  all  that  they  have  seen,  or  heard,  of 
the  times  extending  behind  us. 


314  TIMBUCTOO 

4  As  for  the  present  time,  no  one  is  to  be  found  to  take  an 
interest  in  these  things  or  follow  the  path  traced  by  their 
ancestors.  Witnessing  the  decline  of  this  science  (history),  so 
precious  on  account  of  the  instruction  it  offers  to  mankind,  I  have 
implored  the  assistance  of  God  in  writing  down  all  that  I  have 
read,  seen,  or  heard  concerning  the  kings  of  the  Sudan  and  the 
Songhoi  people,  and  in  relating  their  history  and  the  events  con- 
nected with  their  expeditions  of  war.  I  shall  speak  of  Timbuctoo 
and  of  its  foundation,  of  the  princes  who  have  wielded  the  power 
of  that  city,  I  shall  mention  the  learned  and  pious  men  who  dwelt 
therein,  and  I  shall  continue  this  history  to  the  close  of  the 
dominion  of  the  sultans  of  Morocco.1* 

After  this  prelude  he  opens  his  history  at  the  earliest  date 
known  to  him,  and  notices  the  origin  of  the  Songhoi  kingdom, 
the  founding  of  Jenne  and  Timbuctoo,  and  of  the  empires  of 
Ganata  and  Mali.  He  rapidly  and  clearly  familiarises  the  reader 
with  the  principal  towns  and  peoples  which  are  to  figure  in  his 
narrative,  and  he  enters  fully  into  his  subject  with  Sunni  AH. 
We  are  taken  as  far  as  the  year  1653,  and  given  an  excellent 
idea  of  Foulbes,  Touaregs,  Mossi,  and  Ouolofs  by  the  way.  He 
dilates  upon  Morocco  and  the  kingdom  of  Massina,  adds  a  series 
of  biographies  of  saints  and  scholars,  and  appends  his  own  curri- 
culum vitce. 

He  does  not  consider  his  work  ended  with  the  task  he  set 
himself  to  do,  however,  and  the  historian  takes  up  the  pen  of 
the  annalist.  '  What  shall  happen  hereafter  I  will  relate  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  which  is  past,  for  as  long  as  I  shall  be 
alive,'  says  the  last  page  of  the  Tarik.  An  appendix  enumerates 
all  the  events  until  1656,  which  we  may  take  to  have  been  the 
year  of  his  death. 

Such  is  the  plan  of  the  important  work  which  served  as  my 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  315 

charming  and  picturesque  guide  through  the  Sudan.  It  forms, 
with  the  exception  of  the  holy  writings,  the  favourite  volume 
of  the  negro,  and  is  known  to  the  furthest  extremity  of  western 
Africa,  from  the  shores  of  the  Niger  to  the  borders  of  Lake 
Chad.  Barth  discovered  fragments  of  it  at  Gando,  and  I  heard 
it  spoken  of  in  Senegal.  I  found  an  excellent  copy  in  Jenne, 
and  had  a  duplicate  made  from  it,  which  was  corrected  from 
an  example  at  Timbuctoo,  so  that  we  possess  the  book  in  as 
complete  a  form  as  possible.1 

Its  style  is  very  simple  and  clear,  entirely  lacking  those 
literary  artifices  so  much  in  vogue  among  the  Arabs ;  and  the 
author  displays  an  unusual  conscientiousness,  never  hesitating 
to  give  both  versions  of  a  doubtful  event.  His  biography  of 
the  great  infidel,  Sunni  Ali,  shows  him  to  be  sufficiently  im- 
partial, and  his  book  is  above  everything  remarkable  for  the 
admirable  philosophy  (Islamic,  be  it  understood)  pervading  it. 
It  is  a  work  of  elevated  morals,  and  is  particularly  adapted  to 
exercise  a  happy  influence  upon  the  negraic  mind ;  for  Abder- 
rahman  is  not  content  with  a  mere  narration  of  events — he 
explains  them,  and  that  without  having  recourse  to  the  con- 
venient fatalism  of  the  Mussulman  who  says  of  a  calamitous 
event,  'It  was  written.1  He  accounts  for  incidents  as  being 
the  reward  of  God  when  they  are  fortunate,  and  as  the  punish- 
ment of  such  and  such  a  crime  when  they  are  disastrous. 
Severe  towards  all  infractions  of  the  divine  law  by  kings  and 
humble  alike,  and  sternly  stigmatising  all  cruelty,  he  relates 
every  good  action  with  obvious  pleasure,  and  exalts  all  forms 
of  courage,  especially  the  civic.  The  whole  book  is  a  collection 
of  active  morals,  and  is  one  of  the  most  charming  of  its  kind, 

1  M.   Houdas,  the  eminent  Professor  of  the  Oriental  School  of  Languages,  is 
preparing  a  complete  translation. 


316  TIMBUCTOO 

for    fables,   marvels,   and    miracles    are    agreeably   intermingled 
with  real  events. 

I  will  remark  further  that  the  Tarik  is  to  this  day  the 
Hozier  of  the  Sudan.  In  addition  to  the  attractions  to  be 
found  in  its  pages,  it  contains  a  charm  which  entirely  escapes 
the  Sudanese,  and  which  we  alone  are  privileged  to  taste,  viz. 
the  naivete,  good-nature,  and  delicious  sincerity  which  pervade 
the  book.  Like  Homer,  Abderrahman  sometimes  wanders  astray, 
pen  in  hand.  Side  by  side  with  the  gravest  events  he  mentions 
that  '  a  white  crow  appeared  from  the  22nd  of  Rebia  to  the 
28th  of  Djoumada,  on  which  day  the  children  caught  and  killed 
it/  Elsewhere  in  the  narratives  of  his  voyage  to  Massina,  one 
of  his  hosts  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  He  was  fifty 
years  of  age  at  the  time,  and  in  possession  of  several  other 
wives.  Not  content  with  imparting  the  event  to  posterity,  he 
adds,  '  My  union  with  Fatima  was  concluded  on  the  twelfth  day 
of  Moharrem,  1645,  but  the  marriage  was  not  consummated 
until  Friday  the  sixteenth.1  I  believe  he  would  have  given  us 
his  washing-bills  if  the  use  of  body  linen  had  been  familiar 
to  the  Sudanese.  His  book  admirably  reflects  the  life  and  mind 
of  the  Sudan  of  yesterday.  One  enjoys  from  its  pages  the 
delicate  repasts  offered  by  Homer,  Herodotus,  and  Froissard, 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  I  have  called  the  Tarik  the  chef-cCceuvre 
of  Sudanese  literature. 

I  found  and  brought  away  from  Timbuctoo  other  historical 
works  composed  at  later  date,  upon  the  model  of  the  Tarik. 
One  of  them  is  called  the  Diwan  el  Moulouk,  fi  Salatin  es 
Sudan  (Divan  of  Kings,  a  book  on  the  Sultans  of  the  Sudan), 
and  narrates  the  events  occurring  between  1656  and  1747;  the 
name  of  the  author  is  unknown.  Another  book,  on  the  con- 
trary, has  no  title,  but  is  known  to  us  by  the  name  of  its 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE 


317 


author,   Mouley    Rhassoun.       He    resumes    the  Diwan  from    the 
last  date  given  in  its  pages  and  carries  it  up  to  the  year  1769, 
so  that  we  are  well  instructed  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.       Other    documents 
and  oral  traditions  permit  us  to 
reconstruct  the  order  of  dates 


A  SUDANESE  SCENIC  : 
A    READING    IN   THE   STREET 


and  events,  and,  in  its  broad  outlines  at  least,  the  whole  of  the 
Sudanese  past  is  known  to  us. 

Although   these  two  books  are  precious  for  their  historical 
value,  they  entirely  lack  the  literary  merits  which  charm   us  in 


318  TIMBUCTOO 

the  Tarik.  Intellectual  decadence  has  made  rapid  strides  since 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  author  of  the  Diwan  states  in 
his  first  pages : 

'  The  men  of  my  generation  have  arrived  at  the  point  where 
their  intellects  possess  nothing.  As  for  the  old  men,  those  who 
know  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors  are  few  and  far  between,  and 
those  possessing  any  intelligence  at  all  are  equally  rare.  When 
I  question  them  concerning  what  is  passing  in  the  town,  they 
are  incapable  of  making  a  response  of  any  interest.' 

His  narrative  reveals  the  fact  that  he  himself  was  betrayed 
into  the  errors  he  deplores.  His  style  is  full  of  faults,  the  pages 
are  encumbered  with  repetitions,  and  the  interest  of  the  narrative 
gradually  declines.  The  work  of  Mouley  Rhassoun  is  still  more 
feeble,  consisting  entirely  of  dry  records  and  obituary  notices. 

4  Why  did  they  not  write  more  books  and  abandon  records  ?  ' 
was  the  question  I  asked  the  marabuts  at  Timbuctoo.  '  We 
have  no  men  among  us  clever  enough  to  do  so,'  they  answered. 
'Nor  can  we  devote  ourselves  exclusively  to  science;  we  cannot 
buy  books  nor  travel  to  complete  our  learning  in  Cairo,  Fez, 
or  elsewhere,  for  to-day  we  are  the  poorest  people  in  the  country. 
Formerly  the  people  noted  the  most  uninteresting  things;  they 
counted  the  number  of  days  on  which  rain  fell  in  winter ;  they 
mentioned  that  such-and-such  a  person  was  going  to  marry  so- 
and-so.  For  Ahmed  Baba  had  taught  the  importance  of  the 
science  of  facts  and  dates.1  When  the  town  was  rich  and  every 
one  sought  to  please  the  marabuts,  they  were  well  clothed  and 

1  The  following  encounter  took  place  between  the  chief  of  chiefs  Omar  and  a 
Jew  who  brought  him  a  document  in  which  the  Prophet  commanded  the  exemption 
from  taxation  of  the  people  of  Khaibar  (a  Jewish  town  in  Arabia).  This  document 
was  accompanied  by  the  testimony  of  the  companions  of  the  Prophet,  Ali  Ibn  Abm 
Thaleb  among  others.  These  documents  were  brought  to  the  chief  of  chiefs,  and 
caused  great  astonishment  to  all  people.  They  were  shown  to  Aben  Bekr,  a  prudent 
man  and  endowed  with  a  wonderful  memory.  He  reflected  a  moment,  then  said,  '  All 


POLITICS    AND    LITERATURE  319 

fed,  they  could  give  themselves  to  meditation  and  read  books 
and  write  them.  But  for  the  last  hundred  years  there  have  been 
nothing  but  wars  and  ruin.  We  have  only  known  peace  since 
the  arrival  of  the  French.  We  marabuts  have  to  run  about 
right  and  left  to  procure  a  livelihood,  the  education  of  children 
brings  us  in  so  little.  Sometimes  we  are  asked  to  write  talis- 
mans and  to  copy  books,  but  that  does  not  give  us  sufficient  to 
live  upon.  Many  are  obliged  to  devote  themselves  to  commerce ; 
and,  absorbed  by  the  care  of  not  dying  of  hunger,  how  can  they 
find  time  to  write  ? ' 

I  have  shown  the  town  of  yesterday,  Timbuctoo  the  great, 
under  all  its  aspects. 

Let  us  now  allow  our  imaginations  to  be  carried  back  to  the 
days  of  its  splendour.  Let  us  picture  the  caravans  of  Morocco, 
Tuat,  and  Tripoli  travelling  for  weeks  and  months  across  that 
immensity  of  sands  '  where  the  very  birds  lose  themselves.'  The 
sun  blazes  fiercely  in  the  flaming  sky,  the  skin  cracks,  and  the 
lips  are  parched.  All  the  water  to  be  had  is  warm  and  impure, 
and  even  then  cannot  be  procured  in  sufficient  quantities.  A 
scaly  viper  occasionally  crosses  the  route,  and  at  long  intervals 
the  swift  flight  of  an  antelope  is  seen. 

For  days  and  months  nothing  rejoices  the  eye  save  the 
deceitful  vision  of  the  mirage,  until  Taoudenni,  the  great  halting- 
place,  the  city  of  salt,  has  been  reached. 

One  morning  three  little  black  spots  show  upon  the  burning 

this  is  a  lie.'  *  How  so?'  they  asked  him.  '  I  find  the  evidence  of  Mo'awai  in  this 
document,'  he  replied,  'and  Mo'awai  did  not  embrace  Islamism  until  the  year  of  the 
capture  of  Khaibar.  I  also  see  the  testimony  of  Sa'ad  ben  Mo'adh,  and  he  died  on 
the  day  of  Bani-Karaide  before  the  capture  of  Khaibar.'  This  incident  greatly  amused 
the  people. 

The  above  anecdote  is  related  by  Ahmed  Baba  in  the  beginning  of  his  Ibti- 
hadj. 


J 


320  TIMBUCTOO 

horizon.  The  camels  cease  to  grumble,  they  roar;  and,  as  the 
three  minarets  grow  clearer,  Timbuctoo  displays  her  majestic 
form.  Behold  her  gardens,  her  palm-trees,  and  her  gleaming 
waters !  The  town  is  three  times  as  large  as  it  is  to-day,  the 
streets  are  fresh  and  blue  under  the  shade  of  the  great  trees,  and 
they  seethe  with  the  life  of  its  fifty  thousand  inhabitants. 

In  place  of  the  solitude,  abandonment,  and  misery  of  to-day, 
it  presents  the  traveller  with  a  satiety  of  everything  desirable. 
With  abundance  of  water  and  shade,  it  represents  the  saving 
help  of  the  word  of  God,  the  charm  of  the  word  of  man,  the 
wealth  of  gold  and  ivory,  the  sweetness  of  honey  and  a  profusion 
of  smiles.  ...  I  have  been  told  that  men  went  temporarily  mad 
upon  seeing  it  for  the  first  time. 

Can  we  not  understand  how  it  was  that  the  men  of  Tripoli,' 
Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Fez,  having  experienced  its  pleasures  for  one 
day  only,  have  celebrated  the  splendours  of  Timbuctoo  to  their 
last  hour,  and  how  it  was  that  their  narratives,  reaching  Europe, 
gave  birth  to  the  legend  of  the  fabulous  city  ? 


CHAPTER    XV 

EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO 

ALL  who  have  studied  the  remarkable  genius  of  Colbert  proclaim 
his  ideas  to  have  been  greatly  in  advance  of  his  century.  It 
will  not  surprise  us,  therefore,  to  find  his  name  among  the  first  of 
those  who  attempted  to  open  the  gates  of  Timbuctoo  to  Europe. 

The  great  minister  acquired  a  very  clear  apprehension  of  the 
value  of  the  Sudan  from  a  report  made  by  Andre  Bruc,  governor 
of  the  African  colonies,  and  he  conceived  the  notion  of  reaching 
Timbuctoo  by  way  of  Senegal.  This  plan,  which  received  the 
approbation  of  Louis  xiv.,  was  precisely  that  followed  by  Faid- 
herbe  forty  years  ago,  continued  by  Borgnis-Desbordes  and 
Archinard,  and  finally  completed  in  the  last  days  of  1894. 

We  shall  see  later  on  how  Lieutenant  Boiteux  took  posses- 
sion of  Timbuctoo  in  the  name  of  France,  and  how  the  tricolour 
was  hoisted  in  the  town  for  the  first  time  by  one  of  his  sailors. 
Now,  if  ever,  we  might  say, '  It  was  written,1 — for  the  first  European 
to  see  Timbuctoo  was  also  a  Frenchman  and  a  sailor,  Paul  Imbert, 
who  was  born  on  the  sands  of  Olonne.  I  must  add  that  his 
journey  thither  was  purely  involuntary.  He  was  shipwrecked  on 
the  coast  of  Morocco,  captured  by  the  Arabs,  and  sold  as  a  slave  to 
a  Portuguese  renegade  in  the  service  of  the  sultan.  His  master, 
sent  on  a  mission  by  the  Moorish  government,  took  the  old  sailor 
with  him  to  Timbuctoo  in  1670.  Paul  Imbert  contrived  to  send 


TIMBUCTOO 

news  of  his  misfortunes  to  Europe,  but  died  in  captivity  before  it 
was  possible  to  effect  his  release. 

The  third  name  connected  with  Timbuctoo  is  that  of  Mungo 
Park.  Starting  from  Gambia,  he  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Niger 
at  Segu,  and  was  the  first  European  to  see  the  great  river  of 
Western  Africa  (1795).  He  published  a  most  attractive  account 
of  the  Niger,  which  is  doubled  in  value  by  the  solid  information 
of  the  writer.  His  book  was  the  point  of  departure  for  numerous 
explorations  into  this  portion  of  Africa  in  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century,  and  is  still  well  worth  reading.  The  Sudan  is 
shown  at  a  relatively  normal  period,  and  the  picture  is  drawn  by 
an  interesting  and  competent  pen. 

The  giant  river  exercised  the  same  fascination  upon  Mungo 
Park  which  was  experienced  by  myself,  and  which  I  have  attempted 
to  describe,  and  he  soon  returned  to  it  with  the  intention  of 
descending  the  river  to  its  mouth  (1805).  He  was  accompanied 
by  forty  Europeans — thirty-five  English  soldiers,  four  carpenters, 
and  an  artist  named  Scott.  This  little  troop,  considerably  lessened 
in  number  by  fever,  reached  the  Niger  at  Bammaku.  I  found 
very  vivid  recollections  of  Mungo  Park  below  this  town.  He 
had  been  well  provided  with  merchandise,  and  had  displayed  a 
generosity  in  dealing  with  the  people  which  had  deeply  impressed 
itself  on  their  memories.  They  naturally  do  not  speak  of  him  by 
his  real  name,  which  could  have  no  meaning  for  them,  and  would 
have  been  difficult  to  remember ;  but  like  all  the  early  Europeans 
who  ventured  into  those  parts,  he  was  given  a  picturesque 
sobriquet,  and  called  Bonciba-tigui,  '  the  man  with  the  large 
beard '  (literally  :  batigui,  owner ;  bonci,  beard  ;  ba,  large). 

The  natives  also  spoke  of  him  at  Samba-Marcalla,  a  charming- 
little  town  built  under  large  and  beautiful  trees,  upon  the  left 
bank  of  the  Niger,  between  Nyamina  and  Segu.  The  traveller 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  323 

spent  several  days  here,  tempted  doubtless  by  his  warm  reception 
and  the  blue  shade  in  which  the  quiet  life  of  its  inhabitants  was 
passed.  In  acknowledgment  of  their  hospitality  Park  presented 
the  mosque  with  a  Chinese  vase,  with  which  to  adorn  the  summit 
of  its  minaret,  and  this  ornament  was  still  to  be  seen  in  1888. 
One  day,  the  gunboats  having  dropped  anchor  before  Samba-Mar- 
calla,  their  commanders,  MM.  Hourst  and  Davout,  induced  the 
inhabitants  to  exchange  the  vase  for  another,  and  the  traveller's 
gift  was  brought  to  France  and  placed  in  the  Colonial  Office. 
Learning  further  that  one  of  the  companions  of  '  the  man  with 
the  great  beard '  had  died  at  Samba-Marcalla,  our  officers  had  the 
grave  of  the  Englishman  pointed  out  to  them,  and  their  gunners 
forged  a  fine  iron  cross,  which  marks  the  resting-place  of  the 
unknown  to  this  day.  It  bears  the  following  inscription : — 

TO    THE   MEMORY 
OF    ONE    OF    THE    COMPANIONS    OF 

MUNGO  PARK 

WHO    WAS    BURIED    HERE 

The  Niger  Fleet.     November  1888. 

According  to  a  tradition  transmitted  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Samba-Marcalla,  Mtingo  Parkas  companions  were  at  this  time 
reduced  to  seven. 

Permission  to  enter  Segu  being  refused  him,  the  explorer  went 
on  to  Sansanding.  He  met  with  a  better  reception  there,  and 
was  the  guest  of  Kounta-Mamadi,  the  richest  merchant  of  the 
town,  and  grandfather  of  the  present  chief,  who  told  me  that 
Park  had  been  greatly  liked  by  the  inhabitants.  He  had  sold 
them  merchandise  and  made  little  presents  to  the  children  ;  a  saw 
which  had  been  given  by  him  to  his  host  has  been  carefully 
preserved  by  the  family. 

Having  journeyed   hitherto  by  land,  Mungo  Park  embarked 


TIMBUCTOO  * 

upon  the  Niger  at  Sansanding  in  a  large,  flat-bottomed  boat  he 
had  had  constructed ;  and  from  there,  ignorant  of  which  of  the 
many  possible  routes  he  had  taken  to  reach  Timbuctoo,  I  found  it 
difficult  to  trace  him.  He  was  spoken  of  at  Kabara,  but  he  had 


CROSS    RAISED   TO   ONE   OF   THE   COMPANIONS   OF   MUNGO    PARK 

not  been  able  to  reach  that  port  on  account  of  the  hostilities  of 
the  Touaregs,  who  attacked  him  at  Koriouma. 

Mungo  Park  was  therefore  obliged  to  turn  his  back  upon 
Timbuctoo,  and  Barth  found  traces  of  him  at  Bamba,  Bourroum, 
and  Gao.  The  appearance  of  the  white  man  with  the  great  beard 
and  his  large  boat  has  become  a  legend  on  the  shores  of  the 
Eastern  Niger,  and  the  end  of  the  courageous  explorer  is  well 
known.  His  boat  was  smashed  upon  the  rocks  of  the  Boussa 
rapids,  at  a  comparatively  short  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  325 

Niger,  and  the  brave  Scotsman  and  his  four  or  five  remaining 
companions  were  drowned. 

The  soldiers  and  considerable  sums  of  money  placed  at  Mungo 
Park's  disposal  prove  how  much  the  Nigerian  countries  interested 
England  at  this  time.  She  made  repeated  efforts  to  penetrate 
Western  Africa  between  1810  and  1825,  the  most  remarkable 
being  conducted  by  Major  Laing,  aide-de-camp  to  the  governor 
of  Sierra  Leone.  This  young  officer  also  succeeded  in  making  his 
way  to  the  Niger,  reaching  it  at  Falaba.  He,  too,  was  a  Scots- 
man, as  powerfully  constituted  and  well-informed  as  his  com- 
patriot, and  was  looked  upon  by  England  as  a  second  Mungo 
Park.  His  government  provided  him  with  large  resources,  and 
the  mission  of  attaining  Timbuctoo  was  confided  to  him  in 
1825. 

His  first  voyage  having  familiarised  him  with  the  negraic 
countries,  Laing  preferred  to  take  the  northern  route  in  his 
second,  and  traverse  the  Arabian  and  Berber  countries.  Starting 
from  Tripoli,  he  passed  through  Ghadames,  Tuat,  Oualata,  and 
Arawan,  was  attacked  in  the  desert  by  the  Touaregs,  and  reached 
Timbuctoo  in  August  1828. 

I  have  collected  fresh  details  concerning  his  stay  there  and  his 
death.  Although  they  are  somewhat  at  variance  with  the 
generally  accepted  account,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  vouch  for  them, 
as  they  came  from  an  excellent  source.  They  were  communicated 
to  me  by  the  most  learned  man  in  Timbuctoo,  the  alamany,  or 
religious  chief  of  the  town,  and  grand  iman  of  the  great  mosque  of 
Ghingaraber.  He  was  an  old  man,  bent  with  age  and  almost 
blind,  but  of  still  reliable  intelligence  and  well  versed  in  the 
traditions  of  the  town.  He  had  obtained  his  facts  from  his  uncle, 
Alpha  Saidou,  who  was  grand  kadi  and  judge  of  Timbuctoo  at  the 


326  TIMBUCTOO 

time  of  the  Scotsman's  stay  there,  and  was  therefore  in  a  position 
to  be  well  informed. 

Laing,  who  was  known  under  the  name  of  El  Rais,  the  chief 
(given  him,  doubtless,  on  account  of  his  rank  as  major),  presented 
himself  as  an  envoy  from  the  English  government  to  the  chief  of 
the  town,  Osman-Alcaidi  ben  Alcaidi  Boubakar.  According  to 
custom,  the  latter  offered  him  one  of  his  houses  as  a  dwelling, 
which,  thanks  to  the  alamany,  whose  uncle  Saidou  had  also  lived 
in  it,  I  was  enabled  to  see.  The  family  being  extinct  in  the  direct 
line,  the  house  became,  according  to  custom,  the  property  of  the 
chief  of  the  town. 

It  is  situated  in  a  little  square  near  the  great  market  and  the 
mosque  of  Ghingaraber,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  usual  shabby, 
dilapidated  houses  and  straw  huts  with  straw  enclosures.  On 
one  side  of  the  square  an  oblong  mound  of  masonry  represents  the 


LAING'S  HOUSE 

tomb  of  some  saint,  or  Oualiou.  The  house  appears  to  have 
been  one  story  high,  and  of  good  size,  but  I  found  it  in  the 
process  of  demolition.1  The  facade  was  destroyed,  and  the  first 

1  I  procured  from  its  destroyers  a  little  wooden  Moorish  window  belonging  to  the 
upper  story,  in  which  the  traveller  lived  during  his  stay.  I  brought  away  the  poor 
relic,  which  is  in  every  way  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  Greenwich  Hospital  by  the  side 
of  the  mementoes  of  the  Franklin  Polar  expedition. 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  327 

floor,  by  falling  in,  had  warned  its  inhabitants  that  it  was  time 
to  begin  repairs.  The  masons  were  clearing  away  the  ruins, 
leaving  the  thick  walls  of  the  ground  floor  standing  ready  for 
rebuilding,  and  the  square  was  encumbered  with  bricks  drying 
in  the  sun. 

The  Touaregs  having  extorted  a  ransom,  but  not  pillaged  him, 
Laing  arrived  with  considerable  baggage,  and  was  able  to  make 
the  usual  presents  to  the  chief  of  the  town.  He  explained  that 
he  had  been  sent  by  his  government  to  see  the  commerce  and 
life  of  the  city,  that  the  white  people  wished  to  make  acquaint- 
ance with  the  inhabitants  of  countries  unknown  to  them,  and 
establish  friendly  relations  which  could  only  result  in  good  to  both 
sides.  Such  a  task  had  often  been  confided  to  him  before.  The 
second  day  after  his  arrival  he  was  to  be  seen  exploring  the 
town,  taking  notes,  drawing  great  lines  (plans?)  upon  paper, 
and  questioning  the  passers-by. 

The  chief  of  the  town  entered  into  relations  with  him,  and 
visited  him  pretty  frequently  ;  but  the  other  inhabitants,  great  and 
small,  maintained  a  marked  reserve.  His  questions  had  excited 
great  suspicion ;  and  he  seems  to  have  committed  the  error  of  not 
taking  all  and  sundry  into  his  confidence,  and  elaborately  explain- 
ing his  presence  and  business  to  them.  '  He  did  not  know  how  to 
gain  the  confidence  of  the  people,'  the  old  alamany  told  me.  '  He 
did  not  talk  to  them  and  amuse  them.  If  he  had  done  so,  he 
would  have  had  friends  in  the  town,  and  they  would  have  warned 
him  of  what  was  being  plotted  against  him.  Now,  every  one  is 
aware  that  you  are  neither  soldier  nor  merchant,  and  we  all  know 
that  you  want  to  see  everything  and  hear  everything  and  read  our 
books,  not  to  do  us  harm,  but  to  tell  the  white  people  the  history 
of  the  blacks.  Every  one  comes  to  you,  your  house  is  far  from 
the  fort,  and  you  live  alone  with  your  servant.  Well,  if  any 


328  TIMBUCTOO 

one  conspired  against  you,  certainly  I,  or  one  of  those  who  know 
you,  would  warn  you." 

The  people  were  afraid  of  Laing  and  his  notes  and  questions, 
and  the  surname  of  El  Rais  doubtless  added  to  their  fears.  The 
unhappy  man  did  nothing  to  offend  or  shock  the  inhabitants, 
and  no  one  had  any  reproach  to  bring  against  him,  but  all 
unanimously  agreed  that  the  suspicion  of  his  being  a  spy  had 
finally  roused  the  hostility  of  the  people.  This  was  evidently 
the  real  cause  of  his  death,  and  not,  as  was  supposed,  the  fact 
of  his  being  a  Christian. 

Some  days  before  his  departure  Laing  determined  to  visit 
Kabara,  and  persisted  in  riding  there  after  nightfall,  in  spite  of 
the  warnings  of  his  host  as  to  the  insecurity  of  the  road.  This 
last  imprudence  seems  to  have  been  decisive.  '  He  is  undoubtedly 
a  spy,'  thought  the  inhabitants,  and,  urged  by  the  populace,  the 
notables  of  the  town  planned  the  murder  of  the  stranger.  His 
host,  the  chief  of  the  town,  was  charged  with  his  arrest.  Being 
asked  by  Laing  (who  had  decided  to  return  by  Arawan)  to  pro- 
cure him  a  guide,  Osman-Alcaidi  sent  for  the  chief  of  the  Bera- 
bichs,  a  Moorish  tribe  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood.  To  this 
man,  Sidi  Mohammed  Habeida  (grandfather  of  the  present  chief), 
the  Alcaidi  confided  the  anxieties  of  the  town,  and  requested 
him  to  dispose  of  the  European,  body  and  goods. 

The  witnesses  are  unanimously  agreed  upon  this  point,  the 
Berabichs  did  not  kill  Laing  upon  their  own  initiative,  nor 
because  he  was  a  Christian,  but  at  the  formal  request  of  the 
chief  of  Timbuctoo.  This  new  version  is  evidently  the  true 
one ;  for  if  in  certain  cases  interest  may  compel  them  to  disguise 
the  truth,  it  would  clearly  have  been  to  the  interest  of  the  natives, 
in  this  instance,  to  put  all  the  responsibility  of  the  murder  upon 
the  shoulders  of  the  Berabichs,  and  not  charge  themselves  with  it. 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  329 

Mohammed  Habeida  made  no  difficulty  about  accepting  a 
part  which  did  no  violence  to  the  pillaging  instincts  of  his 
tribe,  and  Laing  left  Timbuctoo  under  his  guidance.  For  two 
days  they  travelled  together  towards  Arawan,  and  the  unfor- 
tunate man  was  killed  at  dawn  on  the  third  day. 

Laing's  visit  and  the  circumstances  accompanying  it  are  still 
vividly  impressed  upon  the  memories  of  the  inhabitants ;  for,  at 
the  instance  of  England  I  believe,  the  Sultan  of  Morocco  made 
an  inquiry  at  Timbuctoo  concerning  his  death.  At  that  time 
the  authorities  naturally  did  not  care  to  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  deed,  and  would  certainly  shift  it  on  to  the  backs 
of  the  Berabichs.  In  this  way  the  version  which  made  Laing 
a  victim  of  the  fanaticism  of  the  desert  was  accepted. 

One  of  his  last  letters  announced  that  he  had  collected 
numerous  manuscripts  on  the  subject  of  Timbuctoo,  and  these 
precious  documents  naturally  occupied  the  mind  of  the  scientists 
and  explorers  a  good  deal.  Rene  Caillie  made  inquiries  con- 
cerning them,  and  reported  that  they  had  been  dispersed  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  desert.  Barth  raised  the  question  twenty- 
five  years  later,  and  was  told  that  not  one  remained.  Lenz,  on  the 
contrary,  believes  that  the  papers  and  effects  are  still  preserved 
in  Arawan.  Since  our  installation  in  Timbuctoo,  the  military 
authorities  have  made  several  attempts  to  discover  the  fate  of 
these  letters  from  envoys  sent  by  the  chief  of  the  Berabichs. 
M.  Josse,  the  Arabian  interpreter,  was  especially  persevering, 
but  in  vain ;  the  Berabichs  insisted  that  nothing  remained  in 
their  possession.  For  my  part,  I  made  the  acquaintance,  during 
my  stay,  of  an  agent  of  the  Mossi,  with  whom  I  was  at  pains 
to  be  on  excellent  terms,  and  who  rendered  me  many  little 
services.  One  evening  I  sent  for  him,  and,  with  air  of  great 
mystery,  offered  him  a  large  sum  of  money  if  he  would  find 


330  TIMBUCTOO 

the  papers  of  El  Rais  and  bring  them  to  me.  I  assured  him 
that  no  one  in  the  town,  European  or  native,  should  know  any- 
thing about  it ;  but  in  spite  of  all  my  diplomacy,  I  was  no  more 
successful  than  the  rest.  Some  time  afterwards  he  assured  me 
that  the  tribe  possessed  neither  papers  nor  anything  else  belong- 
ing to  the  traveller.  Knowing  the  keen  distrust  of  these  people, 
however,  and  the  fear  of  punishment  they  still  entertain  (in  spite 
of  repeated  assurances),  and,  knowing  too,  the  great  respect  with 
which  all  written  matter  is  regarded  in  these  countries,  I  do  not 
think  all  hope  need  be  abandoned. 

If  the  first  explorer  to  reach  Timbuctoo  was  an  Englishman, 
the  first  to  come  back  from  it  was  a  Frenchman — Rene  Caillie,  to 
wit.     As  was  proved  by  the  Grand  Prix  of  10,000  francs  offered  • 
by  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  to  the  first   visitor  from 
Timbuctoo,  the  interest  to  Europe  consisted  in  the  return. 

Behold  the  perversity  of  things,  or,  if  you  will,  the  ways  of 
Providence.  Mungo  Park  and  Laing  departed  accompanied  by 
the  good  wishes  and  encouragement  of  their  countrymen,  well 
provided  with  money,  merchandise,  and  escort — and  failed. 
Success  was  reserved  for  a  humble  and  solitary  man  of  ridiculously 
small  means  who  had  been  contemptuously  repulsed  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  his  country,  and  who  had  scarcely  a  friend  to  press 
his  hand  at  parting. 

'I  was  born,"  says  Rene  Caillie,  'in  1800  at  Mauze,  in  the 
department  of  the  two  Sevres,  of  poor  parents,  whom  I  had  the 
misfortune  to  lose  in  my  childhood.  1  was  apprenticed  to  a  trade 
as  soon  as  I  could  read  and  write,  but  it  was  not  long  before  I 
wearied  of  it,  thanks  to  the  books  of  travel  which  I  read  in  all  my 
leisure  moments.  I  borrowed  geographical  works ;  and  the  maps 
of  Africa,  in  which  I  saw  deserts  and  unknown  regions  marked, 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  331 

excited  my  keenest  interest.   Finally,  the  interest  became  a  passion 
to  which  I  sacrificed  everything." 

He  started  for  Senegal  at  the  age  of  sixteen  with  a  fortune  of 
sixty  francs  in  his  pocket.  Of  the  two  vessels  starting  on  the  same 
day  for  the  same  port,  he  had  the  good  luck  to  choose  the  one  which 
arrived  safely ;  the  other,  the  Medusa,  made  a  notable  shipwreck. 

He  disembarked  at  St.  Louis  (1816),  where  nothing  was  being- 
talked  of  but  the  English  expeditions  into  the  interior.  He  made 
an  attempt  to  join  one  of  these,  but  a  French  officer  dissuaded 
him  and  sent  him  to  Guadeloupe,  where  he  obtained  a  small 
employment  which  kept  him  at  Point  a  Pitre  for  six  months.  The 
narratives  of  Mungo  Park  having  fallen  into  his  hands,  he  returned 
to  Senegal  at  the  end  of  that  time,  more  absorbed  in  Africa 
than  ever. 

This  brings  us  to  the  year  1818,  and  the  English  have  in  no 
wise  relaxed  their  efforts  to  penetrate  the  interior.  The  expedition 
of  Major  Grey  was  just  succeeding  to  that  of  Majors  Peddie  and 
Campbell,  and  Rene  Caillie  attached  himself  to  it  'without 
appointment  or  engagement  of  any  kind,1  happy  in  only  being 
allowed  to  start.  The  Europeans  were  all  mounted,  but  he  had 
to  make  the  journey  on  foot ;  and  if  he  did  not  share  the  comforts 
of  his  companions,  he  certainly  had  his  part  of  the  dangers  and 
sickness,  for  on  his  return  he  was  obliged  to  go  back  to  France  to 
recruit  his  health. 

These  hardships  proved  no  discouragement,  however,  and  he 
returned  to  Senegal  in  a  small  sloop  in  1824.  He  entered  into 
trade  upon  his  arrival,  and  his  business  prospered ;  but  this  was 
not  what  he  had  come  for.  It  was  not  a  fortune  that  he  wanted  ; 
as  he  says  himself,  '  Timbuctoo  had  become  the  one  object  of  my 
thoughts,  the  aim  of  all  my  efforts,  and  I  was  determined  to  reach 
it  or  die  in  the  attempt/ 


TIMBUCTOO 

He  neglected  nothing  to  ensure  the  success  of  this  great  enter- 
prise. Realising  that  a  knowledge  of  Arabic  and  the  forms  of 
the  Mohammedan  religion  was  essential,  he  submitted  to  a  second 
and  severer  trial.  Leaving  his  business,  and  attiring  himself  in 
Moorish  dress,  he  went  to  the  Braknas  Moors  with  the  request 
that  he  might  live  with  their  tribe  and  be  converted  to  Islamism. 
He  suffered  many  annoyances  and  much  ill-treatment,  but  he 
learned  to  talk,  read,  and  write  Arabic,  and  was  initiated  into  the 
mysteries  of  the  Koran  and  the  Mussulman  prayers.  He  then 
returned  to  St.  Louis  to  find  the  means  of  putting  into  execution 
his  plan  of  reaching  Timbuctoo  and  travelling  across  Africa  to 
Egypt,  under  the  guise  of  a  merchant  and  pilgrim  to  Mecca. 

His  real  hardships  were  to  begin  now ;  for,  instead  of  being 
encouraged  in  his  purpose  and  congratulated  upon  the  task  he  had 
achieved,  he  was  received  with  cold  sarcasm  at  St.  Louis.  Instead 
of  the  6000  francs  he  asked  for  to  buy  the  necessary  merchandise, 
the  governor  of  Senegal  allowed  him  soldier's  rations  that  he 
might  not  die  of  hunger,  and  found  him  employment  with  a 
salary  of  fifty  francs  a  month.  'The  fatigue  and  privations  I 
endured  had  perhaps  entitled  me  to  expect  something  better,1  is 
his  sole  comment. 

A  new  governor,  Baron  Roger,  arriving  in  Senegal,  Caillie's 
hopes  revived,  and  for  the  second  time  he  related  his  sojourn 
among  the  Moors  and  explained  his  plans.  This  is  how  he  tells 
the  story  of  his  attempt : — 

'M.  Roger  pooh-poohed  my  project,  and  refused  me  any 
pecuniary  aid.  This  would  have  been  a  thunderbolt  to  any  one 
else,  but  it  only  had  the  effect  of  more  deeply  rooting  my  deter- 
mination. I  had  the  courage  to  return  to  the  charge,  and  he  was 
then  good  enough  to  promise  me  a  certain  sum  upon  my  return 
from  Timbuctoo.  .  .  .  Upon  my  return  from  Timbuctoo !  And 


EUROPE    AND    T1MBUCTOO  333 

if  I  died  on  the  way  ?  This  idea,  terrible  to  a  man  who  would 
leave  a  much-loved  sister  without  help  or  resources,  determined 
my  reply.  I  refused  every  arrangement,  deciding  that  if  I 
died,  I  Avould  at  least  leave  the  friend  of  my  childhood  one 
incontestable  possession — the  merit  of  having  done  everything  by 
myself.' 

While  France  refused  him  6000  francs,  England  was  spending 
eighteen  million  francs  in  attempting  to  penetrate  from  the  western 
coast  of  Africa.  Caillie  now  turned  to  the  English  colony  of 
Sierra  Leone,  and  at  once  aroused  the  interest  of  the  governor, 
General  Charles  Turner.  He  obtained,  instead  of  the  ridiculous 
employment  offered  to  him  by  a  Frenchman,  the  direction  of  an 
indigo  factory  and  a  salary  of  3600  francs.  He  would  probably 
have  succeeded  in  getting  the  6000  francs  for  his  voyage,  but  the 
governor  objected — very  reasonably  from  an  Englishman's  point  of 
view — that  Major  Laing  was  already  en  route  for  Timbuctoo,  and 
he  could  not  have  a  hand  in  depriving  him  of  the  glory  of  being 
there  first. 

Caillie  succeeded  in  saving  2000  francs,  however,  and  was  no 
longer  affected  by  the  refusal.  Having  resumed  the  Moorish 
costume,  he  converted  his  savings  into  merchandise,  and  set  out 
upon  his  journey  (1827). 

His  stock  of  goods  being  too  small  to  permit  of  his  giving 
himself  out  to  be  a  trader,  as  he  had  first  intended,  he  invented  a 
new  pretext.  '  Born  in  Egypt,'  he  told  every  one,  '  I  was  taken 
as  a  child  and  made  to  serve  in  the  French  army,  which  was 
then  in  Egypt.  I  was  brought  as  a  slave  to  France,  and  my 
master  took  me  with  him  to  Senegal  to  assist  him  in  his  business. 
He  was  so  pleased  with  my  services  that  he  gave  me  my  liberty, 
and  now  that  I  am  free  to  go  where  I  will,  I  naturally  desire  to 
return  to  Egypt  to  find  my  parents,  and  resume  the  Mussulman 


334  TIMBUCTOO 

religion/  Thanks  to  his  knowledge  of  Arabic  and  the  prayers  of 
the  Mussulman  cult,  the  fable  of  his  origin  was  everywhere 
accepted,  and  his  journey  was  made  comparatively  easy.  He 
entered  Timbuctoo  on  the  20th  of  April  1828,  having  passed 
by  the  Foota  Jalion,  reached  the  Niger  at  Kankan,  traversed 
the  Bambara  kingdom  of  Segu,  and  paused  at  Jenne  by  the 
way. 

As  Caillie  was  taken  for  the  man  he  pretended  to  be,  I  found 
it  exceedingly  difficult  to  follow  his  track.  All  inquiries  at  Jenne 
were  fruitless,  and  I  feared  they  would  be  equally  so  at  Timbuctoo, 
for  poor  Arabian  travellers  arrive  there  all  the  year  round,  and  he 
had  only  stayed  fourteen  days  in  the  city.  The  name  of  his  host, 
however,  Sidi  Abdallah  Chabir,  one  of  the  most  important 
merchants  of  his  time,  was  perfectly  well  remembered.  One  of 
his  wives  had.  died  only  within  the  last  few  years,  and  his  son 
but  shortly  before  my  arrival.  I  saw  the  house  in  which  Caillie 
had  lodged,  and  the  old  alamany  revived  some  memories  of  the 
explorer  himself. 

The  latter  had  not  failed  to  impart  the  history  of  his  Egyptian 
origin,  his  misfortunes,  and  his  slavery  in  France,  and  I  was  thus 
enabled  to  trace  him.  The  old  alamany  repeated  to  me  (with 
some  variations)  the  fable  mentioned  above  as  concerning  a 
traveller  lodged  by  Sidi  Abdallah.  The  worthy  merchant,  an 
Arab  fond  of  remarkable  stories,  had  been  greatly  struck  by  this 
tale,  and,  being  a  pious  man  into  the  bargain,  he  had  been  deeply 
touched  by  the  religious  zeal  of  the  young  Egyptian.  From  all 
this  Sidi  Abdallah  had  concocted  a  narrative  which  he  delighted 
to  impart  to  his  friends,  and  which  he  accompanied  by  improving 
reflections  on  the  tenacity  of  the  Mussulman  faith.  The  history 
was  so  often  repeated  in  Timbuctoo  that  the  Grand  Kadi,  Alpha 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBITCTOO 


335 


Saidou,  noted  it  down  as  one  of  the  curious  episodes  of  his  time. 
He  edited  his  history  under  the  direction  of  Sidi  Abdallah,  and 
hlackened  four  sheets  of  paper  with  it.  Although  the  old 
alamany  had  inherited  a  portion  of  his  uncle's  books  and  papers, 
this  curious  manuscript  was  not  among  them,  he  assured  me.  I 
requested  him  to  make  inquiries  of  the  other  inheritors  of  the 
kadi,  and  was  then  told  that  the  papers  had  been  burnt  in  a 
recent  fire.  This  explanation  does  not  appear  to  merit  any  great 
amount  of  belief,  and  one  day  somebody  will  doubtless  be  more 
fortunate  than  myself.  The  history  was  probably  embellished 
with  imprecations  on  the  Christians,  and  they  were  therefore  not 
over  anxious  to  communicate  it  to  me. 

The  house  pointed  out  to  me  as  having  been  lived  in  by  the 
Egyptian  was  situated  near  the  market,  and  in  the  same  street  as 
the  one  Laing  had  occupied.  His  dwelling,  more  fortunate  than 
Laing's,  is  still  standing  in  a  very  good  state 
of  preservation — in  the  interior,  be  it 
understood.  It  is  a  large  house, 


CAILLIE'S  HOUSE 


386  TIMBUCTOO 

plainly  indicating  the  importance  of  the  man  who  showed  the 
poor  traveller  such  gracious  hospitality.  Sidi  Abdallah  did  not  live 
in  it  himself,  but  used  it  as  a  warehouse.  It  is  now  occupied  by 
one  of  the  principal  merchants  of  Timbuctoo,  a  Moor,  like  Sidi 
Abdallah,  and  he  too  has  converted  it  into  a  shop.  I,  therefore, 
saw  the  dwelling  under  much  the  same  aspect  it  must  have 
worn  to  Rene  Caillie. 

I  found,  surrounding  the  two  spacious  courts,  '  the  little,  long, 
narrow  and  windowless  rooms,  serving  indifferently  as  shop  or 
bedroom,''  in  one  of  which  Rene  Caillie  lodged,  and  in  which 
4  he  suffocated  day  and  night.1  The  interior  was  encumbered  with 
packages  and  sacks  of  all  kinds,  principally  bales  of  ostrich  feathers 
and  ivory.  Lances  thrust  into  the  floor  showed  that  the  men  of 
the  Desert  occupied  those  suffocating  rooms  at  the  moment.  The. 
real  proprietor  of  the  house,  Mohammed  El  Bakir,  had  just 
received  his  annual  caravan  from  Tendouf,  a  Moorish  town  on 
the  borders  of  the  Sahara.  His  relations  had  great  troops  of 
camels  over  there,  and  they  were  enabled  to  continue  their  com- 
merce in  spite  of  the  insecurity  of  the  desert  routes,  for  they 
belonged  to  a  family  of  marabuts  possessing  great  influence  in  the 
Sahara.  I  was  on  excellent  terms  with  Mohammed  El  Bakir, 
and  he  it  was  who  furnished  me  with  some  notion  of  the  present 
state  of  the  commerce  of  Timbuctoo.  He  was  acquainted  with 
Europeans,  having  traded  with  them  at  Mogador,  where  it  was  his 
custom  to  buy  large  quantities  of  our  produce.  I  was  surprised, 
nevertheless,  when  he  asked  me  for  news  of  Paris  (he  pronounced 
it  Parisse).  He  said  he  had  long  known  the  name  of  the  town,  for 
the  rich  Moorish  Jew  who  bought  his  ostrich  plumes  lived  there. 
His  curiosity  had  been  excited  by  the  marvels  described  to  him  by 
a  Moor  who  had  visited  the  city  during  the  exhibition,  and  he 
wished  to  know  if  he  had  not  been  the  dupe  of  a  too  lively 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  337 

imagination.  I  reassured  him,  of  course,  and  told  him  the  true 
history  of  Rene  Caillie.  To  risk  one^s  life  and  sacrifice  one's 
interests  for  the  simple  satisfaction  of  seeing  a  new  town  or 
country  was  incomprehensible  to  him,  but  he  understood,  never- 
theless, that  in  our  eyes  his  house  was  the  most  interesting  thing 
in  Timbuctoo,  and  I  profited  by  that  to  advise  him  to  keep  it  in 
very  particular  repair. 

Whether  it  was  the  considerable  sacrifices  made  by  the  English 
Government  for  Laing,  or  whether  it  was  owing  to  the  great  con- 
fidence the  public  had  in  this  brilliant  officer,  I  do  not  know, 
but  the  English  have  always  expressed  great  contempt  for  Rene 
Caillie's  success.  Their  disdain  developed  into  injustice,  and  'they 
disputed  his  journey,  his  book,  and  his  sojourn  in  Timbuctoo, 
professing  themselves  completely  edified  when,  twenty-five  years 
later,  the  truth  of  Caillie's  statements  was  confirmed  by  a 
German. 

The  English  Government  made  a  fresh  effort  to  reach  the 
Sudan  in  1850.  Richardson  was  equipped  at  Tripoli  with  the 
same  munificence  that  had  been  allowed  to  Mungo  Park  and 
Laing,  and  intrusted  with  the  mission  of  reaching  Lake  Chad. 
At  the  request  of  Prussia,  two  Germans  were  added  to  the  party, 
one  of  whom  was  Doctor  Barth. 

All  his  companions  having  died  one  after  the  other,  Barth 
was  left  to  fulfil  the  mission  alone.  After  exploring  the  basin  of 
Lake  Chad,  and  discovering  the  Benue,  he  pursued  the  Bournou 
and  Sokoto  route,  passed  Say,  crossed  the  valley  of  the  Niger 
from  south  to  north,  and  arrived  at  Timbuctoo  on  August  29th, 
1853. 

His  journey  was  greatly  facilitated  by  his  position  as  English 
ambassador,  and  by  the  rich  presents  with  which  he  was  enabled 


TIMBUCTOO 

to  sustain  the  part.  His  position  at  Timbuctoo,  however,  was 
extremely  critical.  There  are  people  still  living  in  the  city  who 
remember  seeing  Barth,  or  rather  Abdel  Kerim  (;  the  servant  of 
the  Lord "%  as  he  called  himself,  and  I  gathered  some  interesting 
details  from  them. 

The  explorer  had  counted  upon  staying  at  Timbuctoo  with  a 
sheikh  named  El  Backay,  whose  importance  had  been  boasted  of 
and  greatly  exaggerated  to  him,  and  which  he  in  turn  exaggerated 
to  Europe.  The  Backays  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Kountas. 
These  Berbers,  strongly  infused  with  negro  blood,  were,  two 
centuries  ago,  still  settled  to  the  south  of  Timbuctoo,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Kairwan.  From  there  they  emigrated  to  the 
desert,  spread  along  the  route  from  Tunis  to  the  Sudan,  and 
settled  in  Saharian  Adrar,  a  rocky  plateau  to  the  north-east  of 
Timbuctoo,  near  the  town  of  Mabruk.  They  have  since  drawn 
nearer  the  Niger,  and  are  now  to  be  found  in  the  valley  east  of 
Timbuctoo,  on  both  sides  of  the  river. 

The  Backays  were  a  family  of  marabuts  and  scholars,  not 
warriors,  and  none  of  them  ever  had  the  '  opportunity  of  mounting 
the  throne,"1  as  Barth  has  affirmed.  They  were  content  to  mount 
the  pulpit,  and  their  learning  and  wisdom  have  been  famous  in  the 
desert  for  over  a  hundred  years.  The  first  to  be  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  Timbuctoo  was  Sidi  Moktar  el  Kabir,  a  man  pious  to 
asceticism,  in  whose  eyes  smoking  was  an  impurity.  He  wrote  a 
book  entitled  Tardifa  Koubra  (The  Great  Taraifa),  which  is  still 
in  the  possession  of  the  Kountas,  and  would  be  a  desirable  book  to 
procure,  for  it  contains  several  historical  notices,  I  am  told. 

The  fame  of  his  wisdom  was  the  cause  of  his  being  called  to 
Timbuctoo  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century.  The  last  of 
the  Roumas  were  living  on  exceedingly  bad  terms  with  the 
Touaregs,  and  Sidi  Moktar,  on  being  invited  to  adjust  their 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  339 

disputes,  settled  the  tribute  to  be  paid  to  the  veiled  men,  and  the 
terms  to  be  observed  by  them  in  return.  He  acted  as  mediator  in 
other  circumstances,  and  his  fame  and  the  number  of  his  pupils 
steadily  increased.  On  his  death  (1811)  every  one  said, '  He  was  a 
saint ' ;  a  little  chapel  was  built  upon  his  grave,  and  pilgrimages 
were  made  to  his  tomb,  which  still  stands  on  the  dunes  east  of 
Timbuctoo. 

His  son,  Sidi  Mohammed,  maintained  the  family  reputation, 
and  died  in  1826,  leaving  several  children,  the  eldest  of  whom  was 
called  Sidi  Moktar.  The  latter  also  played  the  part  of  peace- 
maker which  had  been  so  well  sustained  by  his  grandfather. 
When  the  Foulbes  took  possession  of  Timbuctoo,  the  populace 
appealed  to  him  to  intercede  for  them  with  Cheikou  Ahmadou. 
He  succeeded  in  satisfying  both  parties  so  well  that  the  town 
offered  him  a  large  dwelling,  the  Foulbe  king  overwhelmed  him 
with  gifts  and  attentions,  and  he  definitely  quitted  Adrar  for 
Timbuctoo.  He  was  consulted  in  all  disputes  between  Moors  and 
Touaregs,  all  controversies  between  the  town  and  its  nomadic 
neighbours  were  submitted  to  his  judgment,  and  he  became  the 
recognised  arbitrator  of  these  countries.  He  had  no  public 
function,  and  filled  no  official  post,  but  was  merely  a  great 
marabut,  enjoying  universal  consideration,  receiving  numerous 
presents  from  pious  people,  giving  excellent  lectures,  and  followed 
by  many  pupils  from  the  Sudan  and  desert.  He,  too,  was  a  man 
of  the  pen,  and  composed  a  history  of  the  Kounta  Touaregs  and 
other  desert  tribes,  which  he  called  the  Tardifa  Sochora,  or  Little 
Taraifa. 

On  his  death  in  1847,  his  son  Ahmadi,  the  child  of  a  slave, 
succeeded  to  this  honourable  and  lucrative  post,  but  was  ousted  by 
his  uncle.  The  disputes  between  the  two  rivals  irritated  the 
Foulbe  king,  who  was  full  of  reverence  for  the  defunct,  and 


340  TIMBUCTOO 

greatly  diminished  the  prestige  of  the  family  in  Timbuctoo. 
Now,  the  ambitious  uncle  was  none  other  than  Sheik  El  Backay, 
who,  having  finally  got  the  better  of  his  nephew,  endeavoured  to 
restore  the  family  reputation  and  make  himself  famous  by  travelling 
in  the  neighbouring  countries.  He  was  sojourning  in  Gundam 
when  the  explorer  reached  Timbuctoo  in  1853. 

Barth  was  evidently  under  the  impression  that  El  Backay 
occupied  some  commanding  position  in  Timbuctoo.  This  is  the 
only  possible  explanation  of  the  attitude  he  adopted  upon  his 
arrival,  and  his  singular  want  of  tact  which  led  to  so  many 
disagreeables.  Contrary  to  custom,  he  visited  neither  the  chief 
of  the  town  nor  the  authorities,  but  contented  himself  with 
settling  in  one  of  the  shiek's  houses  and  awaiting  his  return  there. 
The  town  was  offended  by  this  want  of  respect,  and  so  much 
hostility  was  displayed  that  the  European  was  warned  not  to 
venture  out.  This  state  of  affairs  lasted  a  month,  and  all  Barth 
saw  of  Timbuctoo  was  the  view  of  the  town  he  enjoyed  from  the 
roof  of  his  house. 

Instead  of  improving,  the  situation  became  more  critical  with 
the  return  of  El  Backay.  In  1853  Timbuctoo  formed,  as  we 
know,  a  part  of  the  Foulbe  empire,  and  the  local  authorities  had 
hastened  to  send  a  message  to  Hamadallai,  the  residence  of 
Ahmadou  Ahmadou,  to  inform  him  of  the  arrival  of  the  traveller. 
Greatly  affronted  that  an  ambassador  should  go  to  Timbuctoo 
without  offering  him  homage  or  the  customary  presents,  without 
asking  permission  to  enter  one  of  his  towns,  nor  even  informing 
him  of  his  presence,  the  king  sent  an  order  that  the  stranger 
should  be  taken  and  brought  to  him.  The  arrival  of  this 
command,  with  a  troop  of  soldiery  charged  to  execute  it, 
coincided,  happily  for  Barth,  with  the  return  of  the  sheik. 

El    Backay,   greatly   flattered    by   receiving   an   ambassador, 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBITCTOO 


341 


Abaradiou 
or  caravan    Suburb 

Ahmed  Baba's  dwell  in 

rT      />£? 


Fort  Philippe 


Mosque 
or  Sankore 


seeing  all  the  lost  prestige  he  could  recover,  and  delighted  to  play 
a  trick  upon  the  government  which  had  crossed  his  ambition, 
formally  and  very  courageously  took  Earth  under  his  protection. 
6  The  stranger  is  in  my  hand.  You  must  cut  it  off  before  you  can 
take  him,'  was 
the  haughty  re- 
sponse he  made 
to  the  envoys. 
The  whole  of 
Timbuctoo  was 
confounded  by 
this  incident. 
The  authorities 
made  many  vain 
attempts  to  in- 
duce El  Backay 
to  reconsider  his 
decision,  and  it 
was  finally  deter- 
mined to  attack 
protector  and 
protected,  and 
carry  away  the 
latter  by  force.  The  two  then  quitted  the  town  together,  and 
took  refuge  in  a  neighbouring  camp.  Backay  was  compelled  to 
call  the  worst  enemies  of  the  city  to  his  assistance,  and  it  was  to 
the  Touaregs  that  Barth  owed  his  escape  from  the  fate  of  Laing 
and  his  safe  return  to  Europe. 

From  the  day  of  his  arrival  to  the  hour  of  his  departure,  the 
explorer  lived  in  Timbuctoo  like  a  prisoner.  He  was  confined 
to  one  house  with  his  own  and  his  host's  servants  perpetually 


PLAN   OF  TIMBUCTOO 


342  TIMBUCTOO 

on  guard.  He  was  unable  to  explore  the  town  or  even  take  an 
hour's  walk  in  its  streets,  and  all  he  saw  of  them  were  the  few 
he  passed  through  as,  surrounded  by  an  escort,  he  left  the  city 
to  take  refuge  in  the  desert  from  the  hostility  of  the  populace. 
He  only  knew  Timbuctoo  through  the  eyes  of  his  servants  and 
other  people  of  that  class,  and  that  is  why  this  portion  of  his 
book  is  so  deceptive  and,  in  spite  of  its  length,  vague  and  empty. 
It  consists  of  copious  details  of  his  anxieties,  his  hopes  and  fears 
for  his  life ;  and  its  few  interesting  passages  are  swamped  in  an 
ocean  of  tiresome  details,  according  to  the  method  of  German 
scholars.  Instead  of  showing  us  some  new  aspect  of  the  Mysteri- 
ous City,  he  rails  at  his  servants  like  a  peevish  housewife  and 
entertains  us  again  and  again  with  the  health  of  his  camels. 
Rene  Caillie  saw,  questioned,  and  observed  an  astonishing  amount 
during  his  fourteen  days"  stay  in  Timbuctoo,  and  gathered  an 
incomparably  richer  harvest  than  did  Earth  in  his  sojourn  of  a 
month.  On  comparing  the  two  accounts,  one  sees  that  Earth's 
utterances  are  mere  amplifications  of  the  facts  acquired  by  his 
predecessor. 

After  this  we  are  somewhat  surprised  to  see  Earth,  from  his 
height  of  Doctor,  treating  Rene  Caillie  as  an  '  altogether  incapable 
man ' ; l  and  surprise  turns  to  stupefaction  when  he  assumes  that 
'  no  one  has  been  as  well  able  as  himself  to  represent  the  town 
and  its  inhabitants  in  their  true  aspect.' 2  It  is  another  example 
of  the  old  saying,  that  one  may  have  great  learning  and  little 
wit.  Rene  Caillie  has  given  us  far  more  than  we  could  expect 
from  a  man  who  only  knew  how  to  read  and  write,  a  poor  fellow 
who  had  not  enough  to  eat  most  of  his  days,  and  was  tormented 
by  scurvy ;  while  Earth  on  the  contrary  did  not,  in  Timbuctoo 
at  least,  fulfil  the  promise  of  his  great  reputation. 

1  Bartk,  vol.  iv.  p.  38,  French  edition.  '2  Ibid.,  p.  442,  German  edition. 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  343 

He  had  his  excuses  however;  circumstances  prevented  his 
seeing  more  of  the  town  than  its  roofs,  and  deprived  him  of 
any  knowledge  of  its  inhabitants.  Public  feeling  was  against 
him.  El  Backay  was  in  revolt  against  the  authorities  of  the 
town  and  its  Foulbe  king,  and  both  he  and  his  guest  were 
avoided  by  the  people.  Barth  lived  in  the  society  of  a  stranger 
sheik  and  his  brothers,  the  chiefs  of  the  Touaregs,  Foulbes, 
Berabichs,  and  other  people  of  the  desert,  who  were  equally 
strangers  to  the  town.  This  explains  how  it  was  that  he  was 
unable  to  procure  any  of  the  literary  works  of  the  city,  and 
remained  ignorant  of  the  real  author  of  the  Tarik  in  a  town  in 
which  it  was  known  to  all.  He  had  to  be  content  with  extracts, 
hastily  copied  from  an  example  at  Gando,  from  which  he  com- 
posed his  historical  chapter  (the  only  new  thing  in  his  book); 
and  he  so  completely  confuses  the  history  of  the  Songhoi  with 
that  of  Timbuctoo  that,  in  his  hands,  the  amusing  and  picturesque 
Chronicle  of  the  Sudan  becomes  something  unutterably  flat  and 
tiresome.  We  surely  had  a  right  to  expect  something  better 
from  the  accredited  scholar  who  was  so  exacting  towards  one 
who  had  been  educated  in  an  elementary  school. 


We  have  seen  that  El  Backay's  house  to-day  is  a  mere  heap 
of  ruins ;  this  is  not  the  case,  however,  with  the  one  next  door, 
which  his  hospitality  offered  to  Barth.  This  dwelling  remains 
exactly  as  it  was  described  by  the  explorer,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  will  be  as  carefully  preserved  as  that  of  Rene  Caillie. 
Timbuctoo  has  none  too  many  relics  of  the  Europeans,  and, 
everything  considered,  there  is  no  need  to  look  harshly  on  the 
memory  of  Barth.  His  surly  disposition  and  his  infatuation 
must  have  caused  him  disagreeables  enough  in  his  lifetime,  and 


344 


TIMBUCTOO 


Europeans  at  Timbuctoo  remember  with  gratitude  that  he  was 
the  first  to  follow  the  course  of  the  eastern  Niger  to  Say,  and 
to  clear  up  the  vast  geographical  regions  surrounding  Lake 
Chad. 

I  also  found  traces  of  Barth  in  his  character  of  ambassador. 
On  his  return  to  Europe  he  set  before  the  English  a  scheme  of 


EARTH'S  HOUSE 

penetration  in  the  direction  of  Timbuctoo  which  was  based  upon 
an  exaggerated  notion  of  the  authority  of  El  Backay.  The 
shorter  routes,  those  of  Algeria  and  Senegal,  being  in  the  pos- 
session of  France,  he  advocated  reaching  the  city  by  way  of  the 
Niger,  starting  from  its  mouth.  He  laid  great  stress  upon  the 
value  of  El  Backay's  support  to  an  English  enterprise,  a  view 
which  was  the  more  readily  accepted  by  the  Government  as  the 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  345 

progress  France  was   making   in    Southern    Algeria  was   causing 
them  much  anxiety. 

The  capture  of  Timbuctoo  gave  some  curious  documents  into 
our  hands.  They  have  not  been  edited,  and  we  give  them  in 
their  entirety,  for  they  display  English  plans  and  methods  with- 
out any  need  of  commentary. 


LETTER  I 
LETTER  FROM  LORD  CLARENDON  TO  SHEIK  EL  BACKAY. 

Praise  be  to  God  !     May  He  be  glorified  ! 

On  the  part  of  Clarendon,  Minister  to  the  Queen  and  Govern- 
ment of  England,  to  the  greatly  honoured  and  very  noble  Sheik, 
the  learned  among  scholars  who  shines  by  his  intelligence,  Sidi 
Mohamed  El  Backay,  ben  Sidi  Mohamed,  ben  Sidi  Mokhar  El 
Kounti ;  to  whom  we  address  our  thanks  and  the  expression  of  our 
consideration.  May  God  reward  him  !  So  be  it ! 

Salutation  be  with  you. 

May  God  accord  you  His  mercy  and  blessing  with  the  purest 
of  His  graces ! 

I  would  have  you  know  that  the  Queen  of  England  has  heard  the 
report  of  Doctor  Barth  (named  Abdel  Kerim  among  the  Arabs),  who 
visited  you  at  her  command,  in  your  country,"  to  renew  the  friendship 
existing  between  you  and  us,  and  to  make  you  known  to  her.  Barth 
has  made  known  to  us  the  goodwill  with  which  you  received  him 
and  which  can  never  be  forgotten.  You  have  protected  him  from 
a  faithless  people  who  were  unable  to  distinguish  good  from  evil 
(may  God  reward  you  for  the  good  actions  His  law  recommended  to 
you  ! ).  He  has  informed  us  of  your  strength  and  courage,  and  we 
have  felt  great  joy  thereat. 

The  letters  you  sent  by  him  have  arrived.  We  have  read  them 
and  well  understand  what  they  contain.  It  has  been  a  great  pleasure 
to  us.  The  hopes  of  the  English  Government  have  been  understood 
by  you.  What  we  wish  is  to  open  the  eyes  of  the  Arabs  of  the 


346  TIMBUCTOO 

south  to  commerce  and  all  appertaining  to  it,  and  we  are  now  aware 
that  you  have  looked  upon  our  mission  with  pleasure  and  have 
accepted  our  friendship  with  joy. 

We  have  given  you  our  word  that  the  friendship  binding  us  shall 
not  diminish  through  the  centuries,  and  that  all  that  the  Arabs  require 
of  us  we  will  do,  without  increase  or  diminishment.  We  will  assist 
them  in  all  that  they  are  unable  to  perform,  and  as  our  government 
is  very  powerful  we  will  protect  your  people  who  turn  to  us,  above 
all  with  the  aid  of  your  Lordship,  who  have  long  shown  your  power 
and  your  friendship  for  us. 

The  Queen  experienced  great  joy  when  she  knew  the  benefits  with 
which  you  loaded  Abdel  Kerim,  who  was  enabled  to  return  in  peace 
owing  to  your  reception  and  the  honours  with  which  you  surrounded 
him,  and  she  sends  you  presents  of  products  manufactured  in 
England. 

These  presents  have  been  packed  in  cases  and  sent  to  the  Consul- 
general  of  Tripoli,  who  will  send  them  on  to  you.  God  grant  that 
they  may  arrive  safely  and  in  good  condition,  and  that  they  may 
please  and  rejoice  you. 

We  request  and  recommend  you  to  say  to  the  chief  of  the  Aoule- 
midens  and  the  chief  of  the  Tademekkats,  that  the  Queen  of  England 
has  received  the  letters  sent  by  them  to  her  through  Abdel  Kerim. 
We  have  all  been  pleased  by  them.  She  begs  you  to  say  to  these 
chiefs  that  she  salutes  them  and  sends  them  a  poignard  and  a  sabre, 
the  poignard  for  one,  and  the  sabre  for  the  other.  You  will  easily 
recognise  these  objects,  for  the  name  of  the  recipient  is  written  upon 
each. 

To  conclude  this  letter,  we  wish  to  say  to  you  that  our  joy  would 
be  great  to  see  one  of  your  people,  above  all  a  child  of  your  own 
house,  whose  visit  would  honour  us.  We  wish  to  show  him  our  power, 
our  manufactures,  and  many  other  things. 

May  God  prolong  your  life  and  preserve  you  to  live. 

Your  friend, 

CLARENDON, 

Minuter  of  the  English  Government. 
LONDON,  the  fifteenth  day  of  April  1859. 


• 

•'•!  •        __  -    :     '   w  -.'     ••  _      --. 


• 


348  TIMBUCTOO 

LETTER  II 

LETTER  FROM  THE  ENGLISH  CONSUL  AT"  TRIPOLI  TO  EL  BACKAY. 

Praise  be  to  the  one  God  !  May  God  grant  His  blessing  to  him 
after  whom  there  was  no  longer  a  Prophet  (otherwise  Mahomet) ! 

To  our  friend  the  noble  Lord,  the  very  high,  very  learned,  very 
complete  Sidi  Ahmed  Backay. 

May  our  greeting  reach  him  with  the  expression  of  our  considera- 
tion. 

You  will  find  in  this  letter  an  epistle  from  the  minister  Clarendon, 
with  a  translation  in  Arabic.  It  is  written  in  reply  to  the  letter 
received  by  you. 

When  you  have  read  this  letter  you  will  know  that  the  English  Govern- 
ment has  sent  a  steamer  up  the  river  that  flows  out  of  your  country,  and  has 
recommended  those  on  board  to  make  every  effort  to  reach  you.  Watch 
for  them.  We  desire  to  unite  ourselves  in  friendship  with  the  people  of 
your  country,  and  make  ourselves  known  to  you,  above  all  at  Timbuctoo 
where  you  live.  We  ask  God  to  assist  us  in  this  task  because  it  will 
result  in  great  good^to  your  country  and  to  us  also. 

The  son  of  your  sister,  Sidi  Mohamed,  and  the  people  of  his 
retinue  are  well.  He  is  with  me  at  this  moment,  awaiting  the 
presents  the  Government  is  sending  him,  and  the  writings  which 
seal  the  friendship  existing  between  you  and  us. 

Our  Government  has  already  given  Sidi  Mohamed  the  choice 
between  several  things.  They  would  send  a  boat  to  take  him  to 
them,  or  they  would  reward  him  here  and  return  him  to  you,  or  he 
could  stay  with  me  till  the  end  of  the  winter  and  the  beginning  of 
the  spring,  when  a  boat  could  take  him  to  England.  Sidi  Mohamed 
decides  to  return  from  here,  and  this  is  also  preferred  by  my  Govern- 
ment, for  we  fear  the  effect  of  the  cold  of  our  climate  upon  his  health. 
This  cold  is  very  great,  etc. 

(Signature  illegible.) 

The  boat  mentioned  never  did  reach  Timbuctoo,  nor  did  El 
Backay  visit  England  and  see  its  manufactures.  Lord  Clarendon's 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO  349 

•  great  joy"  was  of  short  duration,  and  his  hopes  resulted  in 
nothing. 

After  the  departure  of  Barth,  his  protector  had  no  leisure  to 
give  to  the  plans  which  had  been  sketched  between  them ;  he  was 
entirely  occupied  in  taking  care  of  himself.  The  generous  attitude 
which  had  popularised  him  with  Europe  had  greatly  complicated 
his  position  in  Timbuctoo.  His  very  strained  relations  with  the 
Foulbe  authorities,  and  the  suspicion  with  which  the  inhabitants 
regarded  a  protege  of  the  Touaregs  obliged  him  to  maintain  a 
good  deal  of  reserve. 

The  most  critical  period  of  the  Sudan  was  now  approaching, 
and  the  Toucouleur  invasion  was  spreading  from  south  to  north. 
El  Hadj  Omar  had  marched  from  victory  to  victory,  and  was  now 
menacing  the  Foulbe  empire  (1860).  Ahmadou  Ahmadou  naively 
sought  to  avert  the  peril  by  opposing  a  man  of  religion  to  one 
who,  to  justify  his  massacres,  posed  as  a  reformer,  and  Sheik 
El  Backay  reappeared  on  the  scenes.  He  was  exhorted  to  inter- 
vene as  mediator  between  the  kingdom  and  the  new  Prophet,  but, 
remembering  the  former  harshness  of  the  Foulbe  monarch,  he 
at  first  refused.  Afterwards,  however,  he  addressed  a  message  of 
peace  to  El  Hadj,  which  he  accompanied  with  several  presents. 
For  all  reply  the  conquering  Toucouleur  ironically  invited  the 
sheik  to  hasten  with  his  homage,  to  which  El  Backay  responded 
by  a  satire  in  verse  on  the  false  Prophet.  Ahmadou  Ahmadou 
had  perished  meanwhile,  and  the  Toucouleurs  were  installed  in 
his  capital  of  Hamadallai.  One  of  their  columns,  entering  Tim- 
buctoo under  the  command  of  Alpha  Omar,  pillaged  the  town 
and  sacked  the  house  of  El  Backay. 

After  a  while  the  sheik  decided  to  return  from  the  desert, 
in  which  he  had  sought  shelter,  and  at  his  instigation  Touaregs 
and  Kountas  joined  the  fray.  Alpha  Omar's  column  was  surprised 


TIMBUCTOO 

by  night  and  totally  destroyed,  and  the  conquerors,  reinforced 
by  Foulbes,  besieged  El  Hadj  Omar  in  Hamadallai.  The  Tou- 
couleur  peril  was  averted,  but  dissension  now  spread  among  the 
troops,  and  El  Backay  quitted  Timbuctoo  to  establish  peace. 
Before  reaching  Hamadallai,  however,  he  fell  ill  at  a  little  village, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niger,  called  Saradina,  and  died  there 
eight  days  afterwards  (1864). 

Abbidin,  who  was  his  favourite  son,  according  to  Barth, 
attempted  to  assume  his  father's  position  at  Timbuctoo,  but  in 
vain,  for  neither  Touaregs  nor  inhabitants  would  have  anything 
to  do  with  him.  He  then  attempted  a  political  role  in  the 
countries  of  the  Deltas,  and  finally  relapsed  into  brigandage ; 
pillaging  and  terrorising  the  shores  of  the  Black  and  White  Niger, 
under  the  pretext  of  fighting  the  Touaregs.  He  was  killed  by 
the  latter  as  he  was  making  a  pilgrimage  to  his  father's  tomb 
in  1890. 

Such  was  the  history  of  the  Backays  up  to  the  moment  of 
our  arrival  in  Timbuctoo.  It  is  the  story  of  the  decline  of  a  great 
and  noble  family  of  the  desert.  I  will  mention  one  more  some- 
what remarkable  episode.  Barth  awoke  at  Berlin  one  morning 
under  the  impression  that  he  must  write  to  General  Faidherbe, 
the  governor  of  Senegal,  and  recommend  the  Backays  to  him  in 
case  one  or  other  of  them  should  require  assistance.  He  sent  the 
letter,  and  at  the  precise  moment  of  its  arrival  in  St.  Louis,  Oulad 
Backay  had  been  arrested  as  a  spy,  and  was  on  the  point  of  being 
condemned  to  death  by  a  court-martial.  Faidherbe  naturally 
acquitted  the  prisoner,  and  thus  Earth's  and  England's  debt  was 
repaid. 

Two  of  the  sheik's  sons,  namely,  Baba  Ahmed  and  Bai,  were 
still  living  when  we  entered  Timbuctoo.  They  had  returned  to 
the  Saharian  Adrar,  the  cradle  of  their  family,  and  settled  at 


EUROPE    AND    TIMBUCTOO 


351 


Tached-Ait  (the  mountain  of  stone),  a  ten  days'  journey  from 
Timbuctoo.  All  traces  of  the  influence  their  forefathers  exercised 
over  the  Touaregs  had  disappeared,  and  they  were  living  on 
exceedingly  bad  terms  with  their  neighbours,  the  Touaregs  of  Air. 
Ahmed,  grandson  of  the  sheik,  lives  at  Gourbo  on  the  Niger, 
and  seems  to  wish  to  restore  the  prestige  of  the  family.  He 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  French  authorities,  asking  if  they  were 
disposed  to  ratify  the  good  relations  established  by  Barth.  He 
was  answered  in  the  affirmative,  but  his  situation  is  so  precarious 
that  he  will  scarcely  be  of  much  use  to  us.  A  solitary  Backay, 
Ahmadi-Alouata,  occupies  a  modest  position  in  Timbuctoo,  and 
is  on  the  best  of  terms  with  the  authorities. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST 

UP  to  the  last  moment  England  endeavoured  to  put  her  hand 
upon  the  commerce  of  Timbuctoo.  Failing  in  her  efforts  from 
Tripoli  and  the  Niger's  mouth,  she  attempted  to  secure  a  footing 
by  way  of  Morocco,  and  was  installed  towards  1890  at  Cape  Juby. 
It  was  then  too  late.  Our  columns  and  posts  had  been  slowly 
advancing  by  the  Senegal  route  advocated  by  Colbert,  and  in 
1893  Colonel  Archinard  took  Jenne,  the  last  halting-place  but 
one.  The  following  year  we  were  at  Timbuctoo,  and  Cape  Juby 
was  evacuated. 

Whatever  may  have  been  said  at  the  time,  the  occupation 
of  Timbuctoo  was  not  only  necessary,  but  had  to  be  effected 
with  the  least  possible  delay.  No  one  can  complain  now  that 
we  have  not  made  known  the  history  of  these  people  and  their 
country.  The  prosperity  of  the  Sudan  is  so  closely  connected 
with  that  of  its  principal  market,  that  if  the  general  anarchy  had 
been  prolonged  in  Timbuctoo  all  the  sacrifices  of  human  life  and 
money  we  had  made  on  her  threshold  would  have  remained  sterile. 
The  sooner  an  end  was  put  to  the  ruinous  dominion  of  the 
Touaregs  the  better  would  it  be.  What  would  have  become  of 
the  town  if  the  French  occupation  had  been  prevented  ?  We  can 
easily  picture  the  scene  :  the  Touaregs  would  assemble  and  unite 
with  Kountas,  Foulbes,  and  Moors,  as  they  did  thirty  years  ago 

352 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST  353 

against  the  Toucouleurs  at  the  instigation  of  El  Backay.  The 
routes  from  Morocco,  Tuat,  and  Tripoli  would  have  left  the 
Sudan  (that  enormous  country  which  we  occupy  with  such  modest 
means)  open  to  foreign  intrigues,  to  the  introduction  of  arms  and 
ammunition,  and  to  fanatics  led  by  some  inspired  marabut,  to  a 
second  El  Hadj  Omar  returned  from  Mecca,  or  to  some  Mahdi 
come  from  Tuat.  The  result  of  long  years  of  struggle  and  effort 
would  be  destroyed  in  a  few  months,  our  patient  work  of  regenera- 
tion and  pacification  would  be  hopelessly  compromised,  and  the 
flames  of  revolt  which  would  break  out  in  Timbuctoo  would  rapidly 
spread  to  Algeria.  The  seat  of  so  many  perils,  the  key  to  all 
the  routes  of  the  Sahara  and  Sudan,  must  be  in  our  hands  as 
soon  as  possible. 

These  dangers  were  dissipated/  by  the  promptitude  of  our 
march  on  Timbuctoo.  All  homage  to  Colonel  Archinard,  who 
knew  so  well  the  country  and  people  with  whom  he  had  to  deal. 
By  his  alacrity  the  colony  was  spared  fresh  convulsions  and  the 
capital  great  sacrifices.  No  sooner  was  Jenne  taken,  than,  with 
remarkable  intuition,  he  traced  the  plan  of  the  succeeding  cam- 
paign. A  forced  march  was  to  be  made  on  Timbuctoo  to  prevent 
any  concentration  of  the  nomads,  one  column  traversing  the 
countries  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Niger,  another  advancing  by 
of  the  river  as  the  gunboats  cleared  the  passage.  Such 
were  the  tactics  pursued  at  the  end  of  1894.  Colonel  Bonnier 
conducted  one  of  the  columns,  Colonel  Jouffre  the  second,  while 
Lieutenant  Boiteux  commanded  the  flotilla.  Unfortunately 
Colonel  Archinard  was  not  there  to  conduct  the  campaign ;  had 
he  been,  the  unfortunate  episodes  which  marred  its  execution 
would  probably  have  been  averted. 

I  am  now  going  to  show  the  taking  of  Timbuctoo  in  a  new 
light,  as  it  appeared  to  the  inhabitants.  They  related  it  to  me 


354  TIMBUCTOO 

as  the  old  Sudanese  chroniclers,  whose  art  is  unhappily  lost,  might 
have  done. 


From  the  beginning  of  November  1894  vague  rumours  were 
afloat  in  Timbuctoo,  reports  of  a  mustering  of  troops  at  Segu. 
The  country  being  quiet  on  their  side,  the  inhabitants  conjectured 
it  to  be  some  expedition  preparing  for  the  north.  Three  weeks 
passed  without  any  news,  and  then  suddenly  events  took  shape. 
A  merchant,  who  arrived  from  the  south,  announced  that  the 
gunboats  had  reached  Sarafara  and  were  preparing  to  start  for 
Kabara.  They  had  taken  on  board,  as  pilots,  two  of  the  leading 
merchants  of  Timbuctoo,  who  were  in  exile  at  Sarafara,  having 
been  ruined  by  the  Touaregs.  The  next  day  news  came  of  the 
arrival  of  the  flotilla  at  Koriouma. 

A  body  of  Tenguaragif  Touaregs  were  in  Timbuctoo,  and  they 
summoned  Hamdia,  the  chief  of  the  town,  and  ordered  him  to 
have  the  tabala  (war  drum)  sounded,  and  to  command  the  people 
to  take  up  arms.  The  excitement  was  great,  the  population 
being  divided  between  fear  of  the  French  and  terror  of  the 
Touaregs ;  some  of  the  notables  remonstrated  with  Hamdia,  and 
the  Kountas  alone  showed  any  courage.  However,  all  those  who 
had  not  hidden  themselves  in  time  had  to  set  out  in  company 
with  the  veiled  men.  This  small  army,  of  which  the  Touaregs 
formed  the  cavalry,  was  armed  with  lances  and  javelins,  and  a  few 
rifles  belonging  chiefly  to  the  Kountas. 

As  this  army  was  marching  to  Kabara  on  the  morning  of 
December  5th,  the  flotilla  had  left  Koriouma,  and  was  ascending 
the  Pool  to  Dai.  There  Commandant  Boiteux  and  some  Lap  tots 
(black  sailors)  disembarked  in  a  lighter  to  reconnoitre  the  route  to 
Kabara,  and  gather  sufficient  information  to  acquaint  the  two 
columns  with  the  situation  when  they  should  arrive.  But  an 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST  355 

incident  occurred  which  upset  their  intended  plans,  and  hastened 
the  capture  of  Timbuctoo  in  an  unforeseen  manner. 

The  approach  of  the  lighter  having  been  signalled  at  Kabara, 
the  Touaregs  and  Timbuctooans  assembled  on  the  banks,  silent 
and  immovable.  When  the  lighter  appeared  in  sight  a  cloud  of 
lances  and  javelins  greeted  it,  the  Kountas  discharged  their  guns, 
and  a  general  uproar  took  place.  Only  one  shot  carried,  wound- 
ing a  laptot ;  the  rest  had  time  to  escape  the  javelins  by  crouch- 
ing at  the  bottom  of  the  boat.  They  replied  with  a  volley  which 
wounded  several,  killed  one,  and  put  all  to  flight,  the  Touaregs  to 
the  desert,  and  the  Timbuctooans  back  to  their  city. 

A  few  hours  later  the  gunboats  and  lighters  anchored  in  the 
harbour  of  Kabara. 

At  Timbuctoo  the  authorities  held  council  during  the  night. 
'  What  is  to  be  done  '  ?  asked  Hamdia,  the  chief. 

'  Listen  to  my  words  and  thought,"  replied  the  kadi.  '  You 
must  write  a  letter  to  the  commander,  and  say,  "  It  is  not  we  who 
are  responsible  for  what  has  happened  at  Kabara  but  the  Toua- 
regs, whom  we  fear.  We,  the  people  of  Timbuctoo,  are  not 
opposed  to  your  arrival  here,  for  you  hold  the  countries  from 
which  we  draw  our  commerce  and  alimentation.  We  place  our- 
selves in  your  hands."  This  is  my  advice.1 

'I  am  afraid  to  do  that,1  replied  Hamdia.  'The  Touaregs 
insulted  me  this  morning  by  saying  that  we  had  written  to  the 
white  men  asking  them  to  come.  They  know  that  some  of  our 
people  are  on  their  side."1 

'  The  Touaregs  do  us  nothing  but  harm :  why  listen  to  them  ? ' 
replied  the  kadi.  '  We  had  better  send  a  letter  to  Kabara.1 

'But  the  road  is  guarded.  Our  messengers  would  be  taken 
and  killed.1 


356  TIMBUCTOO 

*  You  can  get  to  Kabara  by  other  than  the  main  route.*1 
<  So  be  it,'  said  Hamdia  finally.     '  Let  us  do  as  you  say.' 
The  kadi  drew  up  the  letter,  and  wrote  to  the  commander  as 
follows : — 

'We  would  have  you  to  know  that  what  took  place  this 
morning  was  done  without  our  sanction.  We  only  took  part 
under  compulsion  from  the  Touaregs,  and  we  fled  as  soon  as  we 
could.  Our  united  resolution  was  this.  When,  a  month  ago,  we 
learnt  of  the  arrival  of  your  troops  at  Segu,  some  Arab  merchants 
counselled  us  to  write  to  our  former  master,  the  Sultan  of 
Morocco,  and  ask  him  what  we  were  to  do  if  the  white  men  came. 
The  messengers  set  out  for  Fez  with  a  caravan.  The  route  is 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  FORT  BONNIER 

long,  and  they  have  not  yet  returned.  We  are  women.  We  do 
not  fight.1 

Two  messengers,  who  were  bribed  with  a  hundred  yards  of 
white  linen  to  go  to  Kabara,  immediately  set  out.  Before  sunrise 
they  returned.  One  of  the  Timbuctooans,  who  accompanied  the 
gunboats,  had  read  and  translated  the  kadi's  letter  to  the  white 
man's  interpreter,  and  then  written  the  following  answer  in  the 
commandant's  name : — 

'I   know  that  all    the  mounted  men  and  those   armed   with 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST  357 

lances  were  Touaregs,  but  those  who  had  guns  were  natives  of 
Timbuctoo.  Why  did  you  attack  us  before  you  knew  what  we 
wished?  It  is  not  thus  you  should  receive  people  with  whose 
intentions  you  are  not  acquainted.  Ours  were  for  your  good. 
But  what  is  past  is  past ;  to-morrow  send  some  of  your  chiefs  for 
a  palaver." 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  next  day  the  Touaregs  returned  to 
Timbuctoo.  They  were  questioned  by  one  of  the  notables,  Alpha 
Saidou,  the  chief  of  the  Ghingaraber  quarter. 

6  We  pay  you  taxes,  therefore  you  ought  to  defend  us.  Here 
are  the  white  men.  What  do  you  intend  doing  ? ' 

'  Do  as  you  like,'  they  replied.  '  The  Tenguaragifs  are  not  the 
only  masters  here.  Other  tribes  share  the  tax  with  us,  and  our 
people  ought  not  to  be  the  only  ones  to  be  slaughtered.  Besides, 
we  have  just  learned  that  a  column  is  coming  from  the  west,  the 
Gundam  quarter,  where  our  flocks  and  wives  are.  We  want  to 
protect  them,  and  we  are  going.'' 

The  Touaregs  having  left  the  town,  the  chiefs  and  notables 
assembled  in  the  mosque  of  Sidi  Yaia  after  the  sunset  prayer. 
They  decided  to  accede  to  the  commandant's  wish,  and  two  delegates 
were  chosen.  The  letter  which  accredited  them  repeated  that  they 
were  merchants  and  not  combatants,  and  that  if  the  commandant 
would  wait  for  the  sultan's  answer  all  would  be  well ;  but  if  not,  he 
was  at  liberty  to  do  just  what  he  pleased  ;  he  would  not  be  opposed 
by  the  people.  However,  the  delegates  came  back  ;  one,  a  Tripolitan 
chosen  by  the  Arab  merchants,  would  not  do.  The  commandant, 
would  not  treat  with  a  stranger,  but  only  with  the  natives.  He 
was  replaced  by  an  influential  marabut,  Mohaman  Kouti,  the 
other  delegate  being  Alpha  Saidou.  From  that  time  negotiations 
opened  very  amicably  with  Kabara,  the  delegates  frankly  explaining 
the  situation  and  announcing  the  exodus  of  the  Touaregs.  The 


358  TIMBUCTOO 

commandant  received  them  courteously,  told  them  that  two 
armies  were  following  him  up,  and  demanded  that  a  treaty  of 
peace  should  be  signed  by  the  chief  and  authorities  of  the  town 
placing  the  country  under  the  protectorate  of  France.  But  no 
one  in  Timbuctoo  dared  give  his  signature.  The  town  was  dis- 
mayed, every  one  feared  the  return  of  the  Touaregs,  knowing  that 
in  that  case  his  signature  would  cost  him  his  head. 

According  to  a  local  legend,  the  Niger  has  an  exceptionally 
high  and  early  rise  in  those  years  when  some  remarkable  event, 
generally  sinister,  is  to  take  place,  such  as  war,  epidemic,  or  famine. 
For  thirty  years  no  one  remembered  to  have  seen  so  much  water 
in  the  pool  that  winds  from  Kabara  to  Timbuctoo.  M.  Boiteux 
decided  to  hasten  the  negotiations,  and  arrived  at  Timbuctoo,  by 
means  of  the  pool  of  Kabara,  with  two  lighters  armed  with  revolv- 
ing guns,  borrowed  from  the  gunboats. 

And  thus  it  was  that  Timbuctoo,  a  town  nearly  eight  hundred 
miles  from  the  sea — a  town  of  the  Sahara,  moreover, — was  taken 
by  sailors,  thus  equalling  the  feat  of  Jourdan*s  Hussars,  who  took 
possession  of  the  Dutch  fleet  among  the  ice  of  the  Zuyder  Zee. 

It  was  December  15th.  The  evening  before,  the  two  delegates 
had  been  sent  back  to  Timbuctoo  to  prepare  it  for  the  events 
which  were  to  follow.  During  the  night,  the  lighters,  manned  by 
eighteen  men,  had  crossed  the  sands  without  hindrance,  and  were 
before  Timbuctoo  by  the  morning.  On  hearing  this,  some  forty 
of  the  besieged,  Foulbes  and  Kountas  mostly,  took  up  arms  ;  but 
the  authorities  compelled  them  to  put  them  down,  threatening 
to  stir  up  the  mob  against  them  if  they  did  not.  The  chiefs  then 
proceeded  to  the  banks  of  the  pool,  taking  with  them  gifts  of 
welcome.  '  Are  you  bringing  me  the  treaty  of  peace  I  demanded  ? " 
asked  Commandant  Boiteux.  6  No,"  the  chief  replied,  '  for  we  only 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST  359 

heard  of  your  arrival  last  night.1  '  Then  I  cannot  accept  your 
gifts,1  said  M.  Boiteux,  '  and  I  have  nothing  further  to  say  to  you. 
You  know  my  wish  ;  I  made  it  known  to  your  two  envoys.' 

As  the  deputation  retired  one  of  the  guns  was  landed  and 
planted  on  a  neighbouring  dune,  which  was  rapidly  transformed 
into  a  redoubt ;  the  other  was  left  on  board  the  lighter,  to  cover 
any  eventual  retreat. 

The  presence  of  the  little  troop,  and,  above  all,  the  two  cannon 
(whose  terrible  power  was  known  to  them),  reassured  the  authorities 
as  to  the  return  of  the  Touaregs,  and  gave  them  courage  for  a 
final  resolution.  They  assembled  their  notables  and  marabuts  at 
the  mosque,  and,  the  three  o'clock  prayer  having  been  recited, 
Kouati,  the  most  influential  marabut,  stood  up  and  said,  '  What 
have  you  all  to  say  ? 1 

'  But  what  have  you  to  say  ? '  the  assembly  replied. 

' 1  ?     Oh,  I  am  not  one  of  the  authorities/ 

'  Certainly.  But  you  are  a  marabut,  you  have  the  word  of 
God.  Speak  !  speak  ! ' 

'This  is  my  thought,"  Kouati  then  said.  'All  those  who  will 
not  make  peace  will  be  responsible  in  the  Judgment  Day  for  the 
souls  of  those  who  get  killed.1 

'  We  will  do  as  you  counsel  us.1 

4 1  am  not  the  only  marabut  in  Timbuctoo,1  Kouati  objected. 
'  Question  my  brethren.1 

'  What  Mohaman  Kouati  says  is  true,1  opined  the  brethren. 

'It  is  well,1  concluded  Kouati.  'I  am  going  to  make  peace 
with  the  French.1 

And  then  he  went  to  the  lighters  with  Alpha  Saidou,  who 
had  accompanied  him  to  Kabara,  and  said  to  the  commandant, 
'  We  ask  for  peace.  We  will  accept  it,  and  do  all  you  wish. 
Henceforth  we  are  with  you.1 


360  TIMBUCTOO 

'  Your  decision  gives  me  much  pleasure,1  M.  Boitetix  assured 
them.  '  We  do  not  like  making  war,  we  prefer  peace.  It  was  the 
Toucouleurs  who  first  fired  at  Jenne ;  had  it  not  been  for  that,  we 
should  not  have  fired  a  shot.  In  future,  you  have  nothing  to  fear. 
Sign  the  treaty  by  which  you  recognise  the  French  as  masters  of 
the  town,  and  I,  on  my  side,  will  sign  one  which  will  place  you 
under  our  protection." 

The  next  morning,  the  two  treaties  having  been  exchanged 
in  the  presence  of  the  chiefs  and  marabuts,  they  implored  the 
commandant  to  enter  and  occupy  the  town,  explaining  their  fear 
of  reprisals  from  the  Touaregs,  and  assuring  him  that  henceforth 
he  could  in  all  things  count  upon  them.  They  loyally  informed 
him  that  the  besieged  had  taken  up  arms,  and  they  undertook  to 
keep  them  under  surveillance,  and  to  acquaint  him  with  all  that 
went  on  inside  and  outside  the  city. 

M.  Boiteux  requested  them  to  show  him  the  highest  point  of 
the  city,  and  there  he  selected  a  large  house.  One  of  the  guns 
was  hoisted  on  to  the  terrace,  and  the  surrounding  walls  were 
temporarily  put  into  a  state  of  defence.  This  improvised  fortlet 
was  at  the  north  of  the  town,  where  a  real  fort,  occupied  by  a 
squadron  of  Spahis,  now  stands.  At  the  south  of  the  town 
another  house  was  transformed  in  the  same  manner,  and  the 
second  gun  was  placed  there,  while  the  handful  of  Europeans 
and  Laptots  were  stationed  in  between,  and  some  fifty  men, 
armed  with  guns  furnished  by  the  town,  were  posted  as  sentinels. 

In  the  meantime  the  Touaregs  had  plotted  with,  and  been 
joined  by,  some  Kountas.  On  December  21st  they  attacked  the 
flotilla  reserve  station  at  Kabara.  It  was  on  this  occasion  the 
sad  episode  occurred  which  cost  Midshipman  Aube  his  life.  At 
the  moment  he  was  dying  at  Our*  Oumaira,  the  sentinels  at 
Timbuctoo,  having  heard  rifle-shots,  had  given  the  alarm.  The 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST 


361 


only  two  horses  in  the  town  were  brought  out,  Commandant 
Boiteux  mounted  one,  another  European  the  other,  and,  accom- 
panied by  the  little  garrison  and  the  fifty  natives,  they  set  off  in 
all  haste  to  Kabara.  They  routed  the  Touaregs, 
who  fled,  leaving  fifteen  of  their  number  dead. 

The  enemy  mustered  again  in  the  night,  and 
were  seen  in  the  day-time  passing  the  town.    Being 
greeted  with  shot,  they  dispersed,  some  to  block  the 
road  to  Kabara  on  the  south, 
while  others  installed  themselves 
to  the  north  of  the  city.     The 


ENTRANCE    TO    FORT    BONNIER 

next  night  they  sent  a  letter  to  the  kadi  couched  in  the  following 
terms :  '  People  of  Timbuctoo,  are  you  for  us,  or  for  the  white 
men  ? '  The  messenger  was  sent  back  with  no  other  answer  than 
having  seen  the  letter  torn  in  pieces  and  spat  upon.  At  the 
same  time,  an  inhabitant  of  the  city  arrived  who  had  been  made 
prisoner  by  the  Touaregs,  and  had  escaped  under  cover  of  the 
darkness.  He  told  the  Timbuctooans  that  at  a  council  of  the 
Touaregs,  N'-Gouna,  chief  of  the  Tenguaragifs,  had  proposed 


362  TIMBUCTOO 

marching  on  Timbuctoo,  but  had  been  opposed  by  the  chiefs  of 
the  Kalintassars. 

The  commandant  was  immediately  warned,  and  the  alarm 
given  to  the  inhabitants,  who  feared  an  attack  in  the  dark, 
according  to  the  usual  custom  of  the  veiled  men.  Every  one 
was  armed ;  even  the  strangers  of  Mossi,  who  had  been  recently 
exploited  by  the  Touaregs,  seized  their  bows  and  arrows.  They 
were  posted  east  and  west,  while  the  two  fortlets  guarded  north 
and  south. 

As  day  broke  they  could  see  bands  passing  from  east  to  west, 
but  not  daring  to  approach  when  they  saw  the  muster.  The 
divisions  among  the  Touaregs  increased ;  the  Kalintassars,  who 
had  not  wished  to  attack  Timbuctoo,  returned  to  their  homes, 
and  only  the  Tenguaragifs  remained,  and  they  seized  the  road  to 
Kabara  with  the  intention  of  starving  the  town. 

They  calculated  well.  About  January  6th  the  garrison  found 
the  provisions  were  running  short.  Whatever  happened,  they 
must  revictual  from  Kabara.  The  commandant  resolved  to  use 
the  path  by  which  he  had  come ;  so,  in  the  night,  the  two  lighters, 
armed  afresh  with  the  revolving  guns  and  a  few  men,  glided  out 
unperceived.  However,  they  could  not  get  back  before  daylight, 
and  the  Touaregs,  having  discovered  them,  assembled  in  a  mass  on 
the  shores  where  the  banks  of  the  pool  narrowed.  As  they  were 
preparing  to  fling  their  javelins,  the  guns  were  unmasked,  and  a 
charge  of  grape-shot  saluted  them.  The  Touaregs  had  not 
noticed  the  departure  of  the  lighters,  and  thinking  that  reinforce- 
ments had  arrived,  they  fled  to  the  interior  westward  of  the  town, 
and  the  road  to  Timbuctoo  was  free. 

Four  days  later,  January  10th,  the  first  column,  under 
command  of  Colonel  Bonnier,  entered  the  town,  and  thus  ended 
the  extraordinary  adventure  of  the  marines  in  Timbuctoo. 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST 


363 


I  have  transcribed,  word  for  word,  the  naive  account  given  me 
by  those  ebony  and  bronze  men  who  were  either  the  chief  actors 
or  chief  spectators  in  this  action.  My  one  care  has  been  to 
simplify  their  narrative  and  avoid  any  embellishments,  yet  I  doubt 
if,  in  modern  times,  there  has  been  any  event  as  improbable.  The 
gravity  of  heroic  drama  is  mingled  with  the  fun  of  an  operetta, 
buffoonery  wrestles  with  the  sublime.  Not  even  the  unhealthy 
imagination  of  Edgar  Poe  ever  conceived  anything  more  fantastic. 

It  is  so  preposterous  on  the  face  of  it.  Nineteen  men,  seven 
of  whom  are  Europeans  and  the  remainder  Senegalese  negroes,  set 
out  to  bring  to  terms  a  town  of  8000  inhabitants,  and  are  asked 
to  take  possession  of  it.  And  this  town  is  no  African  Lauderneau  : 
it  is  Timbuctoo  the  Great,  known  as  a  mysterious,  fanatical, 


FORT   PHILIPPE 


inaccessible  city.  Events  follow  in  crescendo.  The  population 
sides  with  its  masters  of  to-day  against  those  of  yesterday.  One 
day  they  are  '  women,"  the  next  they  are  heroes  ready  to  die  in 
defence  of  their  conquerors,  and,  what  is  more,  they  prove  it ! 
These  Touaregs,  whom  formerly  they  had  not  dared  to  look  in  the 
face,  they  now  fight  in  the  open  country.  And,  more  astonishing 
still,  they  beat  them  !  This  dishevelled  epopee,  this  mingling  of 


364  TIMBUCTOO 

cavalry  and  artillery  with  naval  combats  and  pictures  of  siege, 
does  not  last  for  one  or  several  days,  it  is  prolonged  for  a  month. 
In  fact,  one  is  surprised  not  to  see  the  green-eyed  Pallas  Athene, 
or  the  white-armed  Venus,  appearing  in  the  plain  of  Timbuctoo  to 
protect  the  combatants  and  inflame  them  with  warlike  ardour, 
while  Apollo  of  the  silver  bow  brings  the  others  to  confusion  with 
his  arrows.  But  no,  this  is  no  fable ;  it  has  all  been  lived  in  our 
notoriously  prosaic  nineteenth  century.  Why  should  such  a 
glorious  and  amusing  quip  be  followed  by  so  sinister  an  epilogue  ? 
The  actors  are  the  first  column  and  those  same  Touaregs 
whom  just  now  we  left  to  the  west  of  Timbuctoo.  The  story  has 
been  written  by  M.  Raille,  one  of  the  garrison  officers  in 
Timbuctoo,  who  collected  the  facts  from  the  survivors. 

The  morning  after  their  entry  into  Timbuctoo,  Colonel 
Bonnier,  without  further  delay,  ordered  the  fifth  company  and  a 
platoon  of  the  eleventh  to  set  out  and  reconnoitre,  that  they 
might  rid  the  neighbourhood  of  the  nomads  infesting  it,  and 
avenge,  if  possible,  the  massacre  of  Midshipman  Aube. 

At  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  leaving  the  rest  of  the  troops 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Philippe,  the  colonel  started  with 
the  little  column.  He  was  accompanied  by  Commander  Hugueny, 
Captains  Regad,  Livrelli,  Tassard,  Sensaric,  and  Nigote,  Lieu- 
tenants Gamier  and  Bouverst,  Sub-lieutenant  Sarda,  Doctor 
Colonel  Gallas,  the  veterinary  Lenoir,  and  interpreter  Acklouck. 

It  was  the  14th  of  January  1894.  At  two  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  Colonel  Bonnier  learnt  that  the  Touaregs  were  distant 
only  a  mile  or  two  in  front  of  the  column.  They  continued 
marching  until  eight  in  the  evening,  and  then  they  saw  some 
flocks  and  a  few  armed  men.  After  giving  chase  to  the  stragglers, 
they  encamped  at  a  place  called  Taconbao,  which  had  just  been 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST  365 

evacuated  by  the  Touaregs.  Every  one  was  satisfied  and 
cheerful. 

They  encamped,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  form  of  a  square, 
the  men  of  the  fifth  company  occupying  the  north,  and  those  of 
the  eleventh  company  the  south  side.  Every  one  slept  rolled  up 
in  his  blanket  with  his  arms  piled  near.  On  the  other  two  sides 
the  captured  flocks  were  picketed.  The  prisoners  were  installed  in 
the  middle  of  the  camp,  while  the  staff  formed  a  group  in  the 
middle  of  the  square  towards  the  east  side,  where  the  colonel's 
quarters  were. 

Until  midnight  the  officers  of  the  staff  were  awake,  and 
laughing  and  joking,  having  spent  the  evening  gaily.  At  last 
every  one  slept.  It  was  a  magnificent  night,  and  the  brilliant  light 
of  the  moon  illuminated  everything,  until  she  set  towards  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  At  half-past  four  only  the  sentinels,  of 
whom  there  were  six,  were  awake.  The  colonel  himself  gave  the 
orders  to  have  them  placed  at  a  short  distance  from  the  camp. 
Suddenly,  in  the  midst  of  the  silence  and  darkness,  two  reports  of 
firearms  resounded  through  the  camp,  and  the  cry  '  To  arms ! ' 
was  repeated  everywhere.  Immediately  every  one  was  up,  hurriedly 
seeking  his  arms.  Alas  !  it  was  too  late  ! 

The  Touaregs,  some  of  whom  had  been  seen  straggling  round 
the  camp  the  evening  before,  had  assembled  during  the  night. 
Their  cavalry,  accompanied  by  running  footmen  and  favoured  by 
the  darkness,  flung  themselves  on  to  the  French  camp  in  a  furious 
and  irresistible  charge.  In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  they  had 
capsized  the  piled  weapons  and  swarmed  into  the  camp  before  any 
one  had  had  time  to  defend  himself. 

It  was  night  indeed,  and  the  frightful  scene  which  ensued  cannot 
be  depicted.  It  was  a  furious  onslaught,  an  indescribable  tumult. 
Above  everything  sounded  the  warcries  of  the  enemy,  who  were 


366  TIMBUCTOO 

striking  and  killing  on  all  sides  with  lances,  assegais,  sabres, 
poignards,  tomahawks,  etc.  A  few  rifle-shots  mingled  with  the 
clamour  of  distress,  and  that  was  all. 

Our  tirailleurs  succumbed  to  this  human  avalanche.  In  a  few 
minutes  it  was  all  over. 

Three  Europeans,  an  officer  and  two  non-commissioned  officers 
(Captain  Nigote,  Sergeant-Major  Baretti,  and  Sergeant  Lalire)  and 
a  handful  of  men  succeeded  in  forcing  a  passage  and  reaching 
some  bushes  near  the  encampment.  Captain  Nigote  collected  the 
fugitives  in  the  midst  of  these  unprecedented  perils  and  difficulties, 
and  conducted  them  to  the  convoy  which  had  been  left  behind. 
There  they  were  able  to  reform. 

Eighty-two  of  our  men  and  two  guides  were  missing.  Nine 
officers,  including  the  colonel,  three  non-commissioned  officers  (of 
whom  two  were  Europeans),  eight  corporals,  and  sixty  native 
tirailleurs,  had  fallen  before  the  enemy. 

As  far  as  the  survivors  could  judge  in  the  darkness  and  tumult, 
they  had  been  attacked  by  about  two  hundred  horsemen  and 
between  two  and  three  hundred  foot-soldiers. 

Twenty-five  days  afterwards,  the  second  column,  commanded 
by  Colonel  Jouffre,  arrived  at  Taconbao  and  collected  the  skeletons 
of  the  thirteen  Europeans,  bringing  them  back  to  Timbuctoo. 
They  were  buried  behind  an  enclosure  of  dead  thorns  at  the  foot 
of  the  fort  which  was  being  built  to  the  south  of  the  town.  The 
last  solemn  honours  were  rendered  them  before  the  whole  garrison 
and  the  assembled  population,  and  modest  mounds  of  sun-dried 
bricks  and  simple  black  crosses  were  placed  over  the  graves  of 
these  unfortunate  heroes.  Then  Colonel  Jouffre  turned  his 
thoughts  to  vengeance.  He  soon  ascertained  that  the  Tenguara- 
gifs  had  settled  between  the  Lakes  Faguibine  and  Fati,  not  far 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST 


367 


from  Gundam.  They  were  surprised  by  night  in  their  encamp- 
ments, and  our  tirailleurs  and  Spahis  slew  a  great  number  of  them. 
According  to  a  saying  of  their  own  country,  they  paid  the  ransom 
of  blood. 

Since  we  have  avenged  our  dead,  as  the  customs  of  the  desert 


-  •:,  - 
COLONEL  BONNIER'S  TOMB  AT  TIMBUCTOO 

require,  and  since  we  possess  the  country  and  the  markets  from 
which  the  Touaregs  draw  their  supplies,  their  different  tribes  have 
offered  their  submission.  I  will  not  affirm  that  this  submission  is 
complete  and  definite.  It  will  still  be  necessary  from  time  to 
time  to  show  them  that  their  nefarious  dominion  is  at  an  end,  and 
that  they  have  found  their  master. 

Timbuctoo  remained  unwaveringly  faithful  through  all  these 


368  T I M  B  U  C  T  O  O 

vicissitudes,  true  to  the  word  given  on  the  first  day,  '  We  are  for 
you  henceforth,'  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  this  allegiance  will  never 
be  withdrawn. 

After  waiting  for  it  a  year,  the  town  received  the  sultan's 
reply.  The  sovereign  of  Fez  wrote  as  follows  :— 

'  Praise  be  unto  the  one  God. 

'  May  blessings  and  salutations  be  upon  our  Lord  Mahomet,  upon 
his  family,  and  upon  his  companions. 

( Greeting  to  the  chief  of  the  town  and  the  notables.  May  God 
accord  you  His  favours,  accompanied  by  His  blessings  and  His 
mercy. 

'  I  have  paid  great  attention  to  the  help  and  protection  you  ask 
of  me.  I  am  greatly  distressed.  I  should  have  responded  to  your 
appeal  and  given  you  good  support,  but  the  great  distance  between 
us  compels  me  to  be  cautious.  Your  neighbours  must  come  to  your 
assistance. 

'I  will  march  upon  the  French  and  drive  them  away  from  you, 
but  you  must  first  send  me  proofs  of  your  dependency  on  my  high 
government  and  my  kingdom.  If  you  possess  writings  emanating 
from  your  ancestors  (those  generous  ones  who  are  already  in  the 
Land  of  the  Blessed),  manifest  and  serious  documents,  send  them 
to  me.  With  their  help  I  will  deliver  you  from  everything  by  the 
power  and  grace  of  the  Most  High  God,  who  suffices  unto  the 
afflicted  and  who  comforts  those  who  suffer,  for  He  is  All-powerful. 

'  Salutation. 

'  MOULAY  EL  HASSAN.' 

And  so  faded  their  last  and  fondest  illusions.  As  soon  as 
received,  his  majesty's  letter  was  put  into  the  hands  of  the 
commandant  of  Timbuctoo,  who  delicately  placed  it  in  the 
archives. 

Two  large  forts  have  replaced  the  improvised  fortifications, 
and  their  guns  command  every  side  of  the  town.  Under  their 
protection  the  inhabitants  are  reviving.  The  long  nightmare 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST 


369 


of  the  Touaregs  is  being  slowly  dispelled,  they  are  beginning  to 
repair  and  rebuild  their  houses,  to  leave  the  doors  ajar,  and  to 
resume  their  beautifully  embroidered  robes. 

The  town  begins  to  show  signs  of  European  occupation.  A 
great,  herculean  negro  plays  the  part  of  policeman,  and  pro- 
menades the  streets  with  a  sabre  at  his  side.  An  enterprising 
merchant,  Gaston  Mery,  has  recently  established  a  counting- 
house,  and  he  carries  on  an  excellent  business  in  the  large  and 
comfortable  house  he  has  built  there.  Cardinal  LavigenVs  White 


A   HOUSE  :    TYPICAL   OF  TIMBUCTOO   RESTORED 

Fathers  have  arrived,  led  by  Father  Hacquard  (a  man  well  known 
in  Algeria),  and,  thanks  to  them,  the  town  is  already  endowed 
with  a  church  (Our  Lady  of  Timbuctoo)  and  a  school. 


370 


TIMBUCTOO 


Such  are  the  first  days  of  the  new  era  upon  which  Timbuctoo 
has  entered,  and  from  which  she  will  emerge  more  famous  than 


THE    POLICEMAN    AT   TIMBUCTOO 


ever ;  for  she  possesses  one  thing  which  can  never  be  destroyed, 
and  which  ensures  her  perpetual  greatness  —  her  unique  geo- 
graphical position  on  the  threshold  of  the  Sudan  between  the 
eastern  and  western  Niger,  two  arms  which  embrace  the  whole 
of  western  Africa. 


THE    FRENCH    CONQUEST  371 

I  see  Timbuctoo  throwing  aside  her  rags  in  the  distant  future, 
and  raising  the  form  bent  by  misfortunes.  The  sandy  pool  of 
Kabara  will  have  been  cleared  and  deepened,  and  the  Niger 
will  have  brought  its  abundant  waters  to  the  gates  of  the  town. 
It  will  be  an  easy  task  then  to  carry  an  arm  to  north  and 
east,  and  the  town  will  be  embraced  by  a  girdle  of  cultivation. 
Her  gardens,  her  wealth  of  verdure,  and  her  palm-trees  will  be 
restored  to  her,  and,  threaded  by  shady  walks,  she  will  become 
a  pleasant  and  active  cosmopolitan  city,  a  point  of  union  between 
the  black  and  white  worlds. 

The  Sahara  will  be  conquered ;  an  iron  chain  will  be  put 
about  its  sands,  the  links  of  which  will  be  railways;  freights 
will  circulate  between  Algiers  and  Timbuctoo  with  the  speed 
of  lightning ;  and  the  fleets  of  the  Mediterranean  will  unite  with 
those  of  the  Niger.  Touaregs,  Kountas,  and  all  unproductive 
nomads  will  be  thrown  back  upon  the  desert,  their  first  home, 
where  they  will  form  an  efficient  police  force,  which  will  protect 
the  routes  of  the  Sahara. 

I  picture  the  city  become  a  centre  of  European  civilisation 
and  science,  as  it  was  formerly  of  Mussulman  culture.  The 
reputation  of  her  scholars  will  again  spread  from  Lake  Chad  to 
the  mountains  of  Kong  and  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
Timbuctoo  will  once  more  be  the  wealthy  and  cultured  Queen 
of  the  Sudan  which  her  distant  view  now  so  deceitfully  promises 
her  to  be. 


INDEX 


ABDERRAHMAN  SADI  el  Timbucti,  author 
of  Tarik  t  Sudan,  life  of,  312-313 ;  the 
plan  of  his  work,  313-315,  316. 

Abou  Abdallah,  280-281. 

Abu  Abdallah  ben  Abderrahim,  287. 

Ahmadou  Abdoulay,  139. 

—  Ahmadou,  last  King  of  the  Foulbes, 
138,  139,  140,  340. 

—  Baba  Boubakar,  310. 

Ahmed  Baba,  life  of,  306-310  ;  his  books, 

309,  312,  318. 

Akil,  takes  refuge  in  Oualata,  236. 
Alpha  Moussa,  148. 
Amru,  the  Arabian  conqueror,  on  Egypt, 

41-42. 
Arabian  language,  spread  of,  in  the  Sudan, 

276-277. 

—  traders  of  Timbuctoo,  264-266. 
Archinard,  Colonel,  71,  72,  140,  148,  172, 

321,  352  ;  his  march  on  Timbuctoo,  353. 
Askia  Bankouri,  118-119. 

—  Daoud,  120. 

—  El  Hadj  ii.,  120,  124. 

—  Ishak  i.,  1 20,  123,  124. 

Ishak  ii.,  120,  124,  126,   127;    death 

of,  128. 

Ismael,  119-120. 

Kaghou,  128. 

—  Mohammed,  109-117:  his  devotion  to 
Islamism,  109  ;  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and 
Cairo,   no;   conquests  of,  111-113;   ex~ 
tent  of  his  empire,  113  ;  wise  administra- 
tion of,   114-116;    deposed   by  his  son, 
117;  death  of,  120,  121. 

—  Mohamman  Ban,  120. 
Moussa,  117-118,  304. 

Aube  Expedition,  graves  of  the,  199. 

BADOUMBA,  14. 

Bafing  river,  2. 

Bafoulaba,  2,  4. 

Baga,  or  bamambi,  or  cheese-tree,  60-61. 


Bakoy,  2,  9. 

Bambarras,  129. 

Bammaku,  Fort,  2,  9,  50,  56,  et.seq.  ;  its 
principal  articles  of  commerce,  61,  68, 
322. 

Bani  river,  33,  50,  51,  143-145. 

Bankouri,  289. 

Earth,  36,  89,  95,  98,  139,  143,  215,  312, 
324,  329,  337-344 ;  as  English  Ambassa- 
dor, 344-349,  350,  351 . 

Berbers,  the,  113 ;  origin  and  history,  223- 
227. 

Birds  of  the  Niger,  the,  28-29. 

Boiteau,  Lieutenant,  321. 

Bonci-Ba  ('the  great  beard'),  name  given 
to  Mungo  Park,  36,  322. 

Bonier  disaster,  the,  199. 

Borgnis-Desbordes,  Colonel,  57,  72,  140, 
321. 

Bosos  or  Somnos,  the  sailors  of  the  Niger, 
18  ;  their  origin,  19  ;  their  physical  quali- 
ties, 22-23,  38,  39,  80,  81,  82. 

Bourgoo,  Pool  of,  51. 

Bossissa,  on  the  results  of  the  French  con- 
quest, 76-78. 

Brick-making  in  the  Sudan,  148-150. 

Bruc,  Andre",  321. 

CAILLIE,  R£N£,  8,  36,  329  ;  his  career,  330- 

334 ;  his  host  and  his  house  at  Timbuctoo, 

334-337.  342. 
Camel,  cost  of  hire  of,  from   Morocco  to 

Timbuctoo,  251  n. 
'  Captain  Nigotte's  servant,'  5. 
Chad,  Lake,  195. 
Cheikou  Ahmadou,  37,    68,    134-137,   138, 

139,  156;  his  reasons  for  destroying  the 

great  mosque  at  Jenne,    158-160,    240  ; 

trickery  of,  304. 
Clarendon,  Lord,  letter  from,  to  the  Sheik 

el  Backay,  345-346. 
Colbert,  321,  352. 


374 


TIMBUCTOO 


Commissariat  in  the  French  Nigerian  pos- 
sessions, 12-14. 

Convoy  from  KabaratoTimbuctoo,  203-207. 
Cotton  district  of  the  Niger,  65. 
Crocodile- worship  at  Jenne,  181-182. 

DAI,  201. 

Pool  of,  195,  196. 

Dakar,  the  port  of  Senegal,  i,  70. 

Debo,  Lake,  27,  30,  33,  51,  145. 

Deltas  of  the  Niger,  51-53. 

Diafaraba,  50,  51. 

Dialliaman,  90  et  seq.  ;  his  successors,  99. 

Dia  Soboi',  100. 

Diatigui,  or  landlord,  his  duties,  260. 

Difficulty  of  procuring  books  in  Timbuctoo, 

my,  289, 
Dioubaba,  2,  5  ;  journey  from,  to  Bammaku, 

9-16. 

Dioulas,  10-11. 
Dissas,  246. 

Djondier,  Pasha,  126,  127,  128. 
Doves,  respect  paid  to,  at  Jenne,  182. 

EGYPT,  the  '  present  of  the  Nile,'  41. 

— —  influence  of  Ancient,  on  the  Sudan, 

87-88,  95-97,  in,  188. 
Egyptian  art,  characteristics  of,  in  the  houses 

at  Jenne,  150-153. 
Customs,  disappearance  of,  among  the 

Songhois,  180. 
El  Backay,  139  ;  his  house,  215,  343  ;  337, 

340,  341 ;  letters  from   Lord  Clarendon 

and  English  Consul  to,    345-348 ;  349, 

350. 

—  Bekri,  quoted,  on  funeral  customs,  194. 
Djouf,  252. 

Hadj,  281. 

—  Omar,  59,  67,  68,  76,  138,  140, 

141,  172,  240,  349,  350. 

Ibtihadj,  309. 

Mansour,  Sultan,   123,  124,  125,  126, 

127,  130,  307. 

—  Mouchali,  on  Sunni  Ali,  104-107,  295 ; 
his    persecution    of  the  Jews,    298-299 ; 
influence  with  the  King,  299,  301. 

—  Oual  Hadj,  31,  51,  191,  193;  mounds 
at,  193-195. 

—  Zidan  Sultan,  310. 
England,  efforts  of,  to  gain  a  footing  in 

Western  Africa,  325,  331,  352. 
English  methods  in  the  Sudan,  345: 
Essoyouti,  no,  136. 


FAIDHERBE,    Captain,     his    attempts    to 

reach  the  Niger,  15,  71. 

—  General,  Governor  of  the  Niger,  350. 
Farannah,  14. 
Fatassi,  the,   137,  302,  304;    anecdote  of, 

303-304. 
Fires  the  black  man's  method  of  manuring, 

39- 

Flatters  Mission,  the,  15. 

Foota  Jallon  range,  9,  29,  42,  50. 

Fording  the  stream  to  Timbuctoo,  205. 

Foulbe  dynasty,  their  detestation  of  Euro- 
peans, 139. 

Foulbes,  the,  129,  133-134,  135.  J37.  ^4°. 
141,  147. 

French  arms,  disaster  to,  near  Timbuctoo, 
365-366. 

— --  influence  in  Jenne,  beneficial  results 
of,  an  old  chief  on,  172-173. 

GAO,  capital  of  the  Songhoi  Empire,  94, 
95,  98,  99,  108,  113,  124,  126,  127,  133, 

143-  147- 
Ghingarabar,  cathedral  mosque  of,  234,  325, 

326. 

Grey,  Major,  his  expedition,  331. 
Guinea,  the  coin,  named  from  '  Jenne,1  172. 

HABAIS,  the,  98. 
Hacquard,  Father,  369. 
Hamdallai  (El-Lamdou-Lillahi),  159. 
Houdas,  M.,  315  n. 

IBN  BABOUTA,  96 ;  quoted,  268-270. 
—  Chaldoun,  quoted,  223. 
—  Ferhoun,  309. 

Imbert,  Paul,  sold  as  a  slave,  321-322. 
Inundations  of  the  Niger  and  Bani  rivers, 

I43-I45- 

Islamism,  appearance  of,  in  the  Sudan,  96. 
Irregenaten,  241. 

JENNE,  39,  67,  80  -et  seq.  ;  100,  '102,  113, 
140,  146 ;  its  situation,  146-147  ;  descrip- 
tion of  the  houses  at,  150-153  ;  the  grand 
mosque  at,  154-156  ;  commerce  at,  165- 
167  ;  boat-building  at,  167-168  ;  cost  of 
travel  at,  168  ;  influence  of,  on  the 
Western  Sudan;  169-170;  the  founder  of 
Timbuctoo,  170  ;  contrasted  with  Tim- 
buctoo, 170-172  ;  under  the  Toucouleurs, 
172  ;  results  of  French  occupation,  172- 


INDEX 


375 


173  ;  the  market  at,  178-180  ;  crocodile 
worship  at,  181-182  ;  my  last  day  at, 
185-188  ;  the  mother  of  Timbuctoo,  234. 

Jenneri,  51. 

Josse,  M.,  329. 

Jouffre,  Colonel,  353,  366. 

KABARA,  Port  of  Timbuctoo,  197;  popula- 
tion of,  200,  239,  242,  328. 

Pool  of,  200,  205. 

Kadi  el  Akib,  297. 

Kaid-Ali,  38. 

Karita,  or  butter-tree,  59-60. 

Kati  Mountains,  14. 

Kissi  country,  44,  48. 

Khalif  Abassid,  no,  116. 

Kayes,  the  port  of  the  Sudan,  2,  4,  70, 
203. 

Kingdom  of  the  Sands,  the,  196. 

Koli-Koli  river,  33,  34. 

Kong  chain,  48. 

Koran,  the,  276-277. 

Korienza,  port  of,  191. 

Koriuma-Djitafa,  201. 

Kouakoru,  village  of,  80. 

Kouakouru,  143,  144,  145. 

Koukour-Moussa,  235. 

Koulikoro,  18,  50,  65. 

Koumbourou,  153,  154. 

Kounta-Mamadi,  323. 

Kountas,  Berber  tribe,  137,  140,  141. 

Kouroussa,  48. 

Kunari,  51. 

LAING,  Major,  139,  325 ;  his  house  at 
Timbuctoo,  326-327  ;  his  mission,  327  ; 
his  death,  328-329  ;  his  papers,  329-330, 

333- 

Lakes  of  the  Niger,  53,  54. 
Lavigerie,  Cardinal,  369. 
Le'on  the  African,  89,  268,  288. 
Life  in  the  bush,  its  charms,  7-9. 
Litham,  228. 
Louis  xvi.,  321. 

MADEMBA,  FAMA,  72,  75-76. 

Mahmoud,  Pasha,  128  ;  conquest  of  Sudan 

by,  129,  305. 

Mahommed  Neddo,  282-283. 
Moorish  conquest  of  the  Sudan,  122-130  : 

disintegration   sets    in,    130 ;    Songhois 

revolt,  131,  133. 
Maksara,  Touareg  tribe,  231. 


Marabuts,  the*  278-280  ;  lives  of,  280-283  ; 
graves  of,  283-284  ;  their  erudition,  285  ; 
their  libraries,  287-288  ;  their  students, 
289-295  ;  in  politics  and  literature,  282- 
320  ;  exile  of,  305-306. 

Markets  opened  since  French  occupation  at 
Timbuctoo,  267. 

Mali,  the,  100,  101  ;  conquest  of,  by  Askia, 
112-113,  147. 

Malinkas,  147,  235,  236. 

Marie,  Adrien,  15. 

Marrakesh,  124,  127,  306. 

Massina,  51. 

Mopti,  33,  50. 

Morocco  the  principal  client  of  Timbuctoo, 
252. 

Mohammed  ben  Abou  Bakr,  107  ;  quoted, 
285,  286. 

Mosque  at  Jenne,  the  grand,  154-156 ;  the 
story  of  its  destruction,  158-160;  its 
ruins,  160  ;  its  tombs,  160-163. 

Mossi,  the,  pillage  Timbuctoo,  100;  con- 
quered by  Askia,  111-112. 

Mouley  Abdallah,  123. 

—  Mahommed  el  Kebir,  123. 

—  Rhassoun,  317,  318. 

Nata,  or  flour-tree,  60. 

Negraic  Africa,  first  railroad  in,  i. 

Nicab,  228. 

Niger,  the,  i,  2,  9,  14;  my  first  view  of,  15- 

16,    1 8  et  seq, ;    rise  and  fall  of,   32-34  ; 

nights  upon,  35-36 ;   the    '  Nile    of  the 

Sudan '  42  ;  its  source,  42-44  ;  course  of, 

50-55,  115,  143-145  etscq. 
Nigerian  countries,  number  of  Europeans 

in,  58  ;  size  and  population  of,  57. 
Nyamina,  29,  50,  65. 

OSPREYS,  white,  on  the  Niger,  28. 

Quad  Teli,  wells  of,  253. 

Oualata,  96,  234,  235. 

Oualiou,  283. 

'  Our'  Oumaira, '  206-207. 

Our  Lady  of  Timbuctoo,  369. 

PALIKO  river,  44. 

Park,  Mungo,  8,  36, 322-325  ;  death  of,  324. 
Pasture  on  the  Niger,  27. 
Peddie  and  Campbell,  Majors,  their  Expedi- 
tion, 331. 

Philippe,  Captain,  193,  364. 
Pirates  of  the  Niger,  38. 
Post-offices  of  the  Sudan,  70. 


376 


TIMBUCTOO 


QUEEN  of  the  Sudan,  the,  208,  241,  275, 
37i- 

RAILLE,  M.,    his  narrative  of   events    in 

Timbuctoo,  364-366. 

Region  of  the  three  deltas  of  the  Niger,  53. 
Rice  the  staple  food  of  the  Songhois,  184. 
Richardson's  Expedition  to  the  Sudan,  337. 
Roger,  Baron,  332. 
Roumas,  the,  133,  238,  239,  240,  338. 
Rusfisk,  town  of,  i. 

SAHARA,  the,  and  Niger,  struggle  between, 
195- 

St.  Louis,  i  ;  School  of  Hostages  at,  71. 

Salt,  the  true  gold  of  the  Sudan,  123,  170. 

Samba-Marcalla,  322,  323. 

Samory,  57,  59,  140. 

Sana,  51. 

Sankore',  University  of,  237-238,  275  et  seq. 

Sansanding,  29,  50,  65,  67,  71,  72,  165. 

Sarafara,  27,  31,  165,  191, 195. 

Segu,  14,  26,  29,  33,  50,  65,  67-70,  165,  322. 

Senegal,  the  temperature  of,  i. 

river,  2,  9,  14. 

Sidi  Abdallah  Chaber,  334. 

Moktar  el  Kabir,  338,  339  ;  his  suc- 
cessors, 339-340. 

Yaia,  life  of,  281-282  ;   described,  286- 

287. 

Siguiri,  14. 

Sofara,  battle  at,  between  the  forces  of  El 
Hadj  Omar  and  Ahmadou  Ahmadou, 
138. 

Songhois,  the,  their  origin,  89-90  ;  first  king 
of,  90  ;  their  exodus,  93-95 ;  their  lan- 
guage, 97 ;  their  physical  type,  97 ;  capital 
of,  98  ;  their  race  of  kings,  99,  121 ;  their 
empire  invaded  by  Moors,  121,  148,  150; 
writings  of,  181  ;  sweetness  of  disposition 
of,  183  ;  customs  and  habits  of,  184-185  ; 
kingdom,  extent  of,  in  1496,  237  ;  char- 
acter of,  300. 

Sotouba,  barrier  of,  50,  61,  63. 

Spitzer,  M.,  139. 

Sudan,  the,  5,  6,  41 ;  French  conquest  of, 
how  organised,  58  n.  ;  story  of  French 
conquest,  140,  141,  352-371. 

Sudanese,  the,  character  of,  300;  Mo- 
hammedans and  fetichists,  300 ;  out- 
bursts of  fanaticism  among,  301. 

Sunni  Ali,  100,  101 ;  his  conquests,  102  ; 
his  oppressions,  103-104  ;  '  liberties  with 
the  Faith,'  104  ;  traits  in  his  character, 


107,   109,    147,    180,  236,  237,  304,   306, 
316. 
Sunni  Barro,  108. 

Taifa,  the  official  brokers,  262-263. 

Taliba,  or  student,  289-290 ;  his  school 
routine,  290-294;  openings  for  the,  294-295. 

Taoudenni,  salt-blocks  of,  253-255 ;  their 
value,  255  ;  salt  caravans  of,  256. 

Tara'ifa  Koubra,  338. 

Tarik  &  Sudan,  quoted  or  referred  to,  87, 
90,  91,  93,  100,  120,  128,  134,  147,  153, 
160,  185,  232,  280,  304,  310-315  ;  its  style, 
315  ;  the  Hozier  of  the  Sudan,  316,  320, 

343- 

Telegraph,  the,  in  the  Sudan,  70-71. 

Tembi-Kuntu,  50. 

Tembi  river,  44,  45 ;  superstitions  asso- 
ciated with,  45-47. 

Tenguaragifs,  241,  357,  366. 

Thegazza,  salt  mines  of,  123,  124,  252. 

Tidiana,  140. 

Timbuctoo,  14,  26,  32,  37,  39,  40  et  seq. , 
ico,  113,  124,  133,  140  ;  contrasted  with 
Jenne,  170-172,  195,  200-211 ;  market  of, 
211-212;  buildings  in,  213-216 ;  life  among 
the  ruins  of,  216 ;  impressions  of,  216-218 ; 
my  life  in,  218-222  ;  decadence  of,  240 ; 
in  possession  of  tyrants,  241-245 ;  disas- 
trous results,  245-249  ;  commerce  and  life 
of,  250-274  ;  articles  of  commerce,  252  ; 
the  caravans  and  fleets  of,  257;  hospi- 
tality of  inhabitants  to  strangers,  259-260 ; 
the  shops  and  shopkeepers,  261-262  ;  the 
traders,  262-266 ;  statistics,  266-267  \  tne 
city  of  pleasure  for  Western  Africa,  269  ; 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people,  270- 
274 ;  fashionable  life  in,  272-274  ;  a  re- 
ligious, scientific,  and  literary  centre,  273- 
276 ;  in  its  days  of  greatness,  319-320 ; 
the  necessity  for  French  occupation,  352- 
353 ;  the  capture  of,  353-355 ;  attitude  of 
the  population,  355-360  ;  the  future  of, 

369-37L 

Tomboutou  ('The  mother  with  the  large 
navel'),  232. 

Touaregs,  the,  5,  31,  115,  123,  129,  133, 
134,  141,  143,  198,  199,  203,  206 ;  their 
industries,  227-228  ;  head-dress  of,  228 ; 
their  nomadic  habits,  229 ;  theft  their  natu- 
ral industry,  229 ;  religious  beliefs  of,  231  ; 
proverb  concerning,  231,  231  et  seq.,  256, 
284,  338,  341,  350,  351,  360,  362,  364,  365, 
367- 


INDEX 


377 


Toucouleurs,  the,  77,  78,  138,  140,  172,  173; 
invasion  by,  349. 

Toulimandio,  29,  63. 

Tounditi,  battle  between  Moors  and  Song- 
hois  at,  126,  128. 

Tribes  of  Western  Africa,  89. 

Turner,  General  Charles,  333. 


VENUS  ANADIOMENES,  the,  of  the  Niger, 

25,  26. 
Voyage  from    Jenne    to  Timbuctoo,   my, 

189-207. 

'  UNIQUE  PEARL  of  his  Time,'  the,  306. 
WHITE  FATHERS  at  Timbuctoo,  the,  369. 


Printed  by  T.  and  A.  CONSTABLE,  Printers  to  Her  Majesty 
at  the  Edinburgh  University  Press 


14  DAY  USE 

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